Challenges and opportunities for African academies of science in generating knowledge to promote evidence-based policy advice

KMAadmin — Mon, 27 Jul 2009 05:40:51 -0600

By: Dr Xola Mati - Xola@assaf.org.za,, Mr Takalani S. Rambau Simon@assaf.org.za Academy of Science of South Africa

Abstract:
Scientific policies cannot be formulated in a scientific vacuum, it is essential that the government must ensure that its science-related policies and decisions are based on scientific evidence. Therefore, the purpose of this paper is to discuss ways that can contribute towards the development of Academies of Science in Africa so that they can play an important role towards the generation of evidence-based policy advice to their governments and the public. It is necessary to ensure that the best practices on providing ‘good advice’ are embedded in the now established African Academy bodies that have capacity to provide evidence-based science advice.

This paper will draw from the experience of the Academy of Science of South Africa (ASSAf)’s initiatives within Africa which include coordinating the IAP Programmes such as GMO challenges and opportunities, Water Resource and Management, Science Education Best Practices in the sub-Saharan Africa, a capacity building workshop aimed at developing a framework that would assist in strengthening the existing academies and facilitating the establishment of other academies in the African continent where none exist and the continent wide online scientific writing training programme.

With these initiatives, African Academies can play a significantly special role with regard to the provision of independent evidence-based advice to their governments within the continent. However, sustainable funding becomes a deterrent for the established academies to play such a meaningful service oriented role.

The paper recommends an African Academy framework to ensure that more synergistic initiatives aimed at addressing poverty, health, education and other social challenges are implemented within Africa.

INTRODUCTION

The Academy of Science of South Africa (ASSAf) was inaugurated in May 1996 by the then President of South Africa and patron of the Academy, Nelson Mandela. It was formed in response to the need for an academy of science congruent with the dawn of democracy in South Africa – activist in it mission of using science for the benefit of society.

The mandate of the Academy encompasses all fields of scientific enquiry and its Membership includes the full diversity of South Africa’s distinguished scientists.

The Parliament of South Africa passed the Academy of Science of South Africa Act, Act 67 of 2001, which came into operation in May 2002.

ASSAf is the official national academy of science of South Africa and represents the country in the international community of science academies.

Since its inception, ASSAf has grown progressively from a small, emergent organization to a mature and well-established academy.

ASSAF VISION AND MISSION

Vision

The vision of the Academy is to be the apex organization for science and scholarship in South Africa, internationally respected and connected, its membership simultaneously the aspiration of the country’s most active scholars in all fields of scientific enquiry, and the collective resource for the professionally-managed generation of evidence-based solutions to national problems.

Mission

The mission is summarized as follows:

To become increasingly associated with the highest levels of scholarly achievement and excellence in the application of scientific thinking for the benefit of society;
To consolidate its infrastructure and capacity;
To expand and mobilize its membership to include scholars from the full disciplinary spectrum;
To proactively and reactively embark on a programme of systematic studies of evidence-based issues of national importance;
To develop a sound and robust methodology for constituting study panels, producing authoritative reports that are well- disseminated and have significant impact;
To publish science-focused periodicals to promote a national interest in the sciences;
South African Journal of Science – multidisciplinary journal of the highest quality and international standing;
- Quest: Science for South Africa – science magazine that showcases the best of South African research to a wide national and international audience;
- Strategic Reports – policy advisory reports that seek to influence national decision- and policy-making;
To promote the development in South Africa of an indigenous system of research journals of internationally recognized quality and usefulness;
To develop and maintain productive partnerships with government departments;
To develop and maintain collaborative linkages with science councils, non-government organizations (NGOs), higher education institutions, etc. with a view to the building of capacity in science and its applications within the National System of Innovation (NSI);
To create new and diversified sources of funding for the sustainable functioning of an independent national Academy;
To communicate effectively with general and specific publics, as well as with partners and sponsors;
To expand activities in partnership with national science academies of other countries, including the contracted partnership with the US National Academies;
To play a significant role in the international science system, particularly in Africa, through organizations such as the IAP, IAMP, IAC & G8+ 5 Academies; TWAS; ICSU; and NASAC; all within the context of NEPAD.

The values of the Academy are independence; using evidence and knowledge as drivers of thinking to attempt to resolve problems via the generation of sound, rigorous and evidence-based solutions; multi-disciplinarity and consilience; the highest ethical and moral norms; and recognizing the essentially developmental nature of our society.

The benefits the Academy aspires to bring to South Africa (and the wider world) are the sustainable provision of a professionally-managed organization that can mobilize the best intellect, expertise and experience to investigate and provide evidence-based solutions to national problems; inspiration and example in science and technology, applied for the benefit of society; international connectedness at the highest level of knowledge and insight; and facilitation of public understanding of the nature, scope and value of the scientific and technological enterprise.

The relevance of the Academy in the context of national policy frameworks and initiatives is that it strives to achieve the purposes of its enabling Act of Parliament through a public-domain, multi-year strategic plan; subscription to the intentions and recommendations of the White Paper on Science and Technology and the National Research and Development Strategy; the Ten Year Innovation Plan; and a role in meeting national priorities such as Accelerated and Shared Growth Initiative for South Africa (AsgiSA) and Joint Initiative for Priority Skills Acquisition (JipSA).

GOALS

Corporate Objectives

The overall corporate objectives of the Academy in the coming year are to:

exercise governance responsibly;
promote the mobilization of Academy Members in the service of the Academy’s aims;
establish the Academy as the apex intellectual organization of science;
increase the understanding of the Academy’s existing and potential partners of its specific niche in the NSI;
deliver products of high quality and value;
strengthen and expand systematic evidence-based studies of national importance;
ensure that its multilateral and bilateral international linkages are functioning well and complementary to those of government and other institutions;
strengthen links with national institutions and government departments.

Financial Objectives

The financial objectives in the coming year are to continue with efficient and effective financial operations, performing appropriate internal audit and risk management, reporting correctly and transparently as needed, and continuing with our unbroken record of unqualified external audits. Diversification of sources of income is a further key imperative.

Key Challenges and Opportunities for 2009/2010

Key challenges in the coming year are to:

improve the impact of the many study reports in the policy arena;
increase the participation of Membership in ASSAf activities;
successfully implement an open access platform for South African scholarly journals;
achieve the goals of the Scholarly Publishing Programme;
successfully implement the new SAJS editorial model and firmly establish the journal as Africa’s premier multi-disciplinary scholarly journal;
increase the reach and impact of Quest among its target audience;
consolidate and strengthen the service offered to Members by the ASSAf secretariat;
improve ASSAf’s profile through increased communication activities;
ensure diversified income streams as funding from the US National Academies through the African Science Academies Development Initiative (ASADI) draws to a close;
strengthen interactions with key policymakers and stakeholders;
ensure delivery of high quality reports and recommendations based on evidence-based project activities;
address the needs and aspirations of young scientists;
secure new office space for the ASSAf secretariat.

Opportunities include the following:

Continued funding and support from the US National Academies of Science; Hosting of the Academy of Science for the Developing World (TWAS) conference;
Hosting of the InterAcademy Medical Panel (IAMP) conference;
Membership of the InterAcademy Council (IAC) Board from 2009 to 2013;
Project-related collaboration with other African academies;
Role in NASAC;
Participation in the G8+5 academies meeting.

FORGING A RELATIONSHIP WITH THE NETWORK OF AFRICAN SCIENCE ACADEMIES (NASAC)

The Academy of Science of South Africa is a member of the Network of African Science Academies (NASAC) which was formed on December 13, 2001 with the following founding member-Academies:

African Academy of Sciences;
Cameroon Academy of Sciences;
Ghana Academy of Arts and Sciences;
Kenya National Academy of Sciences;
Madagascar’s National Academy of Arts, Letters and Sciences;
Nigerian Academy of Sciences;
Académie des Sciences et Techniques du Senegal;
Uganda National Academy of Sciences; and
Academy of Science of South Africa.

The AAS, having initiated the process of forming the Network, agreed also to host the NASAC Secretariat. NASAC membership currently stands at 13 member Academies with the following four Academies as new members:

Tanzania Academy of Sciences;
Zambia Academy of Science;
Zimbabwe Academy of Science; and
Sudan Academy of Science.

The general objective of the Network is to: act as an independent African forum that brings together Academies of Science in the continent to discuss the scientific aspects of problems of common concern, to make common statements on major issues relevant to Africa and to provide mutual support to Member Academies. In pursuing this objective the Network collaborates with other Academies inside and outside the continent as well as with regional and international organizations concerned with African problems.

Derived from the general objective, the specific objectives of NASAC are to:

Facilitate the provision of advice to governments and regional organizations on scientific aspects of issues of importance to Africa's development;
Promote cooperation between Academies in Africa by exchanging information on programs and experiences, and sharing common visions;
Assist in building the capacities of Academies in Africa to improve their role as independent expert advisors to governments and to strengthen their national, regional and international functions;
Assist science communities in Africa to set up national independent Academies where such bodies do not exist; and to
Organize conferences, workshops and symposia, and issue statements or reports on topics of major African concern.

The NASAC membership is drawn from African countries and member Academies are independent, non-governmental, non-political and non-profit scientific organizations, but above all, are merit-based and national in the scope of their operations. NASAC is governed by a General Assembly which consists of the Presidents of all member Academies, and an Executive Committee consisting of the President, three Vice- Presidents and the Secretary-General.

Visits and consultations

Between 2001 and 2006 NASAC has grown in terms of the number of member Academies, but also with respect to its activities. Significantly contributing to the development of those activities were two working visits of the Presidents (or their designated substitutes) of NASAC member Academies and NASAC staff to, respectively, the US National Academies of Sciences (US NAS) in April 2003 and the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences (KNAW) in February 2006. A third visit to the Royal Society of London is scheduled for October 2006.

The US NAS-visit culminated in the African Science Academy Development Initiative (ASADI), which is funded by a grant from the Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation. Under this initiative, all nine founding NASAC members receive support to strengthen their strategic planning capacities, while three Academies (those of Nigeria, South Africa and Uganda) are more intensively supported for purposes of capacity building.

At the end of the visit to the KNAW - with all 13 members participating - participants formulated a number of action items for possible follow-up and requested the KNAW to support NASAC in developing these ideas into a “NASAC Strategic Action Agenda”.1 This was followed by consultations among the NASAC President, the NASAC Secretariat and the KNAW team that organized the February visit.

STRATEGIC ACTION ITEMS

Context and impact

The “NASAC Strategic Action Agenda” presented below is of course about NASAC – and at the same time it is not about NASAC at all. Yes, it is about NASAC insofar as NASAC is the agent that will drive the implementation of the Agenda. No, it is not about NASAC as the most important aim of the project is not so much to strengthen NASAC, as it is to strengthen the thirteen national Academies of science that are member of NASAC – and beyond that: through these Academies to contribute to science itself. Accordingly, the strengthening of NASAC as such is not the purpose of the “NASAC” Strategic Action Agenda, nor is the purpose of that Agenda to invest in the NASAC member Academies as a goal in itself, that is: without regard to the role and position of these Academies in relation to science, scientists and national research systems.

There is great variety among the world’s science Academies, both in terms of history and organization, as well as in terms of their mandate and the functions they perform within their respective countries. The same holds true for African Academies of science that are members of NASAC. Some NASAC member Academies are established organizations with strong ties to active scientists and government – others are still very young and have a long way to go to establish the same ties.

For this reason, it is essential to articulate some overarching considerations that should guide not only the content of the Strategic Action Agenda, but also its implementation.

First, an Academy of science is not a purpose in itself. Of course, it should bring scientists together – also socially – but this is not enough: an Academy should also be able to play a role in strengthening science and in advising decision-makers.
Second, an Academy can achieve these expectations only if it makes sure that its membership is not only of the highest quality, but also includes in large part scientists who are actively involved in research at the cutting edge of science.
Third, an Academy and the larger science community are mutually dependent: an Academy needs a high quality science community from which to recruit members and a science community needs an Academy to enhance its visibility and impact.

One implication of these considerations is that the best and most effective way to strengthen an Academy may well be to invest in the quality and quantity of the science being carried out in country or region: better science requires better scientists, the best of whom can then be inducted in an Academy. Yet, this is not the approach taken in this NASAC Strategic Action Agenda presented below. That Agenda opts for a more modest approach – also financially – by focusing on the question of what specific actions can help the NASAC member Academies to become better and more effective in helping to improve science in their country or region (“policy for science”) and in advising decision-makers and society on the scientific aspects of societal issues (“science for policy”).

Priorities and timeline

There are several categories of actions and activities that are inherent to NASAC as a network of African science Academies. NASAC is not NASAC if it is not involved in:

Supporting the scientific leadership in countries with no national Academies of science to create new Academies;
Strengthening the effectiveness and efficiency of existing Academies in Africa, both individually and collectively;
Developing effective and appropriate links with other African and non-African science organizations or initiatives;
Supporting member Academies with efforts to enhance public awareness of the potential of science for national development; and
Serving as a platform for the exchange of information on best practices in respect to the core functions of Academies.

However, although inherent to NASAC, each of these categories of activities is so broad and long term that priorities must be set. This is indeed what the NASAC Strategic Action Agenda is all about: the setting of priorities within the overall framework of the categories of activities that were just mentioned. This implies that, within these overall categories, specific actions must be identified that are do-able with limited resources and within a relatively short period of time. Identifying and adopting such action items does not imply that NASAC will do nothing else. On the contrary: ongoing activities will continue, while there may also be unexpected opportunities to seize or problems to address.

TEN ACTION ITEMS

Within the overall framework outlined in the preceding two paragraphs, ten specific action items have been defined.

Support new NASAC members with developing a strategic plan and promote the adoption of concrete work plans As was mentioned before, ASADI supports the development of strategic plans by the nine Academies that founded NASAC, while three of these Academies receive additional support for capacity building. This leaves out the four new NASAC member Academies. These Academies will receive support from NASAC to also develop a strategic plan. This not only for their own benefit, but also as NASAC and its members can only move ahead in a coordinated manner if all NASAC member Academies have a strategic plan. For this reason NASAC will also support member Academies that do not yet have such a plan to develop a concrete work plan that indicates the specific steps to be taken by an Academy for the purpose of implementing the strategic plan.
Organize for member Academies a series of workshops on best practices for merit-based science Academies Each Academy is unique. Even so, much can be gained by sharing experiences and insights. For this reason NASAC will organize a series of multi-day workshops on best practices in areas like: membership election and mobilization, fundraising and resource mobilization, reporting and advisory functions, outreach to the general public, relations with the press and other media, participation in international science cooperation, etc. A first workshop may focus especially on Presidents and other elected Officers, while subsequent workshops will focus on Academy executive officials and other members of staff.2 A limited number of outside experts may participate, but the core agenda of each workshop is to stimulate discussion among the participants from the NASAC member Academies.
Develop, and share with member Academies, expertise on funding opportunities for African research One of the greatest challenges facing African scientists is to obtain adequate funding, both from sources within their respective countries and from worldwide donor organizations. NASAC member Academies are best placed to help address that challenge in their own country, but NASAC can help by making available to its members the expertise that is required if an Academy or (a group of) African scientists seeks funding from non-African sources. The European Union (EU) is a key actor here, especially as its Framework Programs are also open to African scientists. NASAC will mobilize expertise to tap into the EU funding system and make that expertise available to its member Academies so that they may support African scientists whose research qualifies for EU funding.
Request a study on re-vitalizing the role of African universities in national innovation systems from the InterAcademy Council (IAC) Currently, the InterAcademy Council (IAC) is exploring the feasibility of a study on the question of how to re-vitalize African universities so that they can better contribute to national innovation and development. Representing all African Academies of science, NASAC is ideally positioned to act as the requesting organization for such a study. In order to strengthen this request, NASAC will approach the African Union (AU) and the Association of African Universities (AAU) to express their support for the IAC study. As with previous IAC studies, this study will most likely have much international visibility, while the outcome of the study will be of interest to all NASAC member Academies, their governments and the international donor community. As the requesting organization, NASAC and its members will take the lead in defining follow-up initiatives. IAC itself will provide all funding for the study itself.
Develop a website to inform the general public of NASAC and its activities and to facilitate information exchange among NASAC member Academies NASAC will develop as soon as possible a high-quality website with up-to-date information on NASAC and its activities. The website will also provide information on NASAC member Academies that do not yet have a website of their own, while the NASAC site provides links to the sites of Academies that already have a site. Part of the website will be accessible to NASAC members only. Initially, this members-only-section of the site will be an archive where members can find information that should not be available to the public at large (for example, on plans and initiatives under consideration). At a later stage the members-only-section may evolve into a virtual office allowing member Academies to work together without physical travel.
Stimulate scientific networking between African and non-African scientists and enhance visibility of African science Excellent science is performed in Africa. NASAC will support its member Academies to make this visible, both in Africa and elsewhere. An important way of increasing the visibility of African science is to stimulate scientific networking, exposing scientists from Africa and the rest of the world to each other’s work. More specifically, NASAC will collaborate with the European Science Foundation (ESF) and other partners to organize a series of Europe-Africa research conferences on selected areas of research that are of interest both to Africa and European scientists. In addition, NASAC will support its members in issuing from time to time Statements on some of the critical issues facing African science or society.
Support member Academies with undertaking a fore-sighting exercise designed to a set research priorities at the national level In many countries fore-sighting is an important instrument in determining research agendas and priorities. Its outcomes are used not only by the scientific community itself, but also by governments and donor organizations. NASAC will support member Academies in initiating a national fore-sighting exercise, both for the purpose of developing expertise and experience with the methodologies of fore-sighting and for the purpose of defining research priorities in consultation with the science community, government and, where appropriate, the private sector and other stakeholders. NASAC will ensure that the lessons learned in these fore-sighting exercises are available to all NASAC member Academies.
Identify criteria and best practices for successful research collaboration between African and non-African scientists. Although almost always unintended, research collaboration involving African and non-African scientists is often of greater benefit to one party than to the other. If the disadvantage falls with African scientists, African science as a whole loses. Using the expertise of its member Academies, NASAC will therefore take the initiative for a study to analyse actual examples of joint research projects in an attempt to identify structural criteria or practices that are essential to secure a balance of benefits. If such criteria and practices are found, NASAC member Academies and donor organizations can use them to ensure that any future partnerships are indeed of mutual benefit.
Position NASAC as an attractive partner in matters of Africa-wide policy making and collaboration Once (most of) the above action items have been successfully completed, - and not any sooner - NASAC may be in a position to become the first port of call for institutions outside Africa that are looking for a partner on Africa-wide science and technology issues. Such a role for NASAC must complement and support the role of NASAC member Academies. Of special importance is the development of cooperative relationships with the EU, the global science donor community and organizations like the InterAcademy Panel (IAP), the InterAcademy Council (IAC) and the International Council for Science (ICSU). Within Africa NASAC must seek to establish strong and constructive links with the ICSU and TWAS Regional Offices and with bodies like NEPAD and the AU.
Support initiatives to develop concrete plans and proposals for the creation of and African Science Foundation Building an African Science Foundation is a major undertaking that cannot be driven by any organization on its own. For this reason NASAC and the NASAC member Academies will seek to support efforts to launch such a Foundation, recognizing that the most critical factor for the Foundation’s success will be its ability to generate structural financial support from African sources. In this process NASAC and the NASAC members must represent the voice of the science community – nationally and regionally - especially by mobilizing the voice of active African scientists that work at the cutting edge of their respective disciplines.

INTERNATIONAL LIAISON ACTIVITIES OF THE ACADEMY OF SCIENCE OF SOUTH AFRICA

Network of African Science Academies (NASAC)

The Academy is a founder Member of NASAC, and is currently a Vice-President. The Secretariat of NASAC is at the African Academies of Science (AAS) in Nairobi. ASSAf will devote much energy to playing a leading role in NASAC activities in 2009-2010 and will partner with NASAC on a variety of activities.

African Science Academies Development Initiative (ASADI)

The African Science Academies Development Initiative (ASADI) programme funded by the US National Academies has provided an effective vehicle for improving cooperation between African science academies and their Members/Fellows. The fourth annual conference and training sessions of the ASADI members, and other NASAC members, was held in London in November 2008. The 2009 ASADI annual meeting, with a focus on “Improving Maternal, Newborn and Child Health in Africa”, is scheduled to take place in Ghana in November 2009. ASSAf is taking responsibility for the production of a policy-makers booklet on the topic and to this end will be organizing a series of workshops of national and international experts.

ASSAf will also host the 2010 ASADI annual meeting and will embark on planning for this activity during the coming financial year. It is anticipated that the focus of the meeting will be on energy.

The workplan and budget for Year Five (equivalent to the financial year 2009-2010) of the project will be submitted to the U S National Academies by 31 May 2009.

The ASSAf partnership with the US National Academies through the ASADI development programme continues to make a major contribution to the development and recognition of the Academy.

InterAcademy Panel (IAP)

ASSAf is one of over 100 member Academies of the IAP, head-quartered in Trieste, Italy. ASSAf can thus enhance its national science academy role within our country by drawing on the experience and capacity of the world’s science academies for South Africa’s benefit. Significant funding of projects has been obtained from IAP.

InterAcademy Council (IAC)

The President of ASSAf has been elected to serve on the Board of the IAC for the period 2009 to 2013. The work of the IAC is described as follows: “The InterAcademy Council (IAC) produces reports on scientific, technological, and health issues related to the great global challenges of our time, providing knowledge and advice to national governments and international organizations”. ASSAf intends during its period of membership of this council to participate fully in its activities.

InterAcademy Medical Panel (IAMP)

ASSAf’s membership of the IAMP provides valuable contact with the main medical academies world-wide and a focus on health problems of the developing world. Professor Anthony Mbewu, Presdient of the Medical Research Council (MRC), is currently a Vice-Chair. ASSAf will host the IAMP General Assembly in 2009.

The Academy of Science for the Developing World (TWAS)

ASSAf is an active collaborator of TWAS, which has programmes to stimulate scientific development in developing countries and co-sponsors ASSAf’s Young Scientist Award. Discussions are underway to establish a TWAS chapter in South Africa and to further promote TWAS fellowship schemes in South Africa. The hosting of the 2009 TWAS Conference in Durban will significantly increase ASSAf’s profile and role in TWAS.

G8 + 5 Academies

A significant outflow of ASSAf’s membership of the IAP has been its continuing inclusion in the annual meetings of the G8 + 5 academies, where the national science academies of the 13 countries discuss key issues of common interest and provide evidence-based advice to the heads of state at the G8 summit meeting. In addition, they issue Consensus Statements to international bodies and the world media/public. In March 2009, the meeting will take place in Rome and the statements to be issued are on migration and energy.

RESPONDING TO THE CHALLENGES AND OPPORTUNITIES FOR AFRICAN ACADEMIES OF SCIENCE IN GENERATING KNOWLEDGE

The goal is to enable existing national science academies based in the SADC region to participate in a workshop with representatives from universities in SADC countries which do not (yet) have such academies, in order to jointly explore the ways in which academy functions may add significant value to the university system in each country and regionally. This value in the modern era consists mainly of creating a professionally managed, impartial, multi-disciplinary, high-merit and transparent system of providing evidence-based policy and planning advice in the country concerned, through the effective mobilisation of the best-available expertise (which resides largely in the universities). At the same time, national academies are amongst the most powerful incentives for academic performance, thereby providing universities with an external driver of intense and sustained effort on the part of their academic staff, in a system equally open to all institutions. As a “voice of science”, academies can also promote the development of research and education networks, and provide a reputable forum for multi-party consensus.

Therefore this goal accords very closely with the first action item of the Network of African Science Academies (NASAC) Strategic Action Agenda. Specifically, this action item states: “Help create new academies and support existing members with developing strategic plans and concrete work plans”.

Therefore this paper al seeks to align these two initiatives and to chart a way forward by suggesting a regional approach to the creation of new academies and using the SADC region to initiate this process.

At present, there are five national science academies in the SADC region that are members of NASAC, the secretariat of which is at the African Academy of Sciences (AAS) in Nairobi, Kenya. These are from Madagascar, South Africa, Tanzania, Zambia and Zimbabwe. Academies of Science have recently been established or are in the process of being established in Mauritius, Mozambique and Botswana. The SADC countries without national science academies are Angola, Democratic Republic of Congo, Lesotho, Malawi, Namibia, and Swaziland.

ASSAf is the only academy in the region which is part of the African Science Academies Development Initiative (ASADI), now in its fourth year of partnership with the US National Academies. ASADI seeks to develop the capacities of African national science academies to generate evidence-based advice in their countries, while simultaneously fostering receptiveness on the part of policy-makers to use the advice proffered by academies.

The individual universities of the SADC countries in both groups are all members of the Southern African Regional Universities Association (SARUA), which has informally indicated its interest in promoting a more purposeful and planned exploitation of academy functions.

An important aspect of African science academies is that while they can learn much from successful practices and contributions of the established academies of developed countries, they have to create their own adaptations that may be better suited to the circumstances of states which are in various stages of development and contexts.

Some of the outputs which might come from the workshops include models for establishing new national science academies by leap-frogging steps already taken in other countries; cross-representation in panels generating evidence-based advisory reports; productively linking university-based scholars into key agencies for African development; jointly developing and enhancing core academic resources such as scholarly journals, indexes of research outputs, and technology-enhanced information access; making NASAC a well-regarded voice in African policy-, making; maximising the benefits of the honorific function of academies, within countries and the region.

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