IKS

The role of traditional and indigeneous knowledge and technology: the citizens engagement

storytelling — Tue, 06 Oct 2009 05:57:23 -0600

By Prof. Joseph O. Malo. KNAS and University of Nairobi

Abstract

The paper examines the role of traditional and indigenous knowledge and technology including the role of citizens in knowledge management of sustainable environment, health, water resources, education, habitat, disaster and emergency response, food security, clean energy etc.

The motivating factor is that most of the villages in developing countries are small and literally cut off from the rest of the world and hence under serviced. Social services particularly in health must therefore promote a combination of traditional and scientific approach. This calls for recognition of people who apply natural and traditional methods to sustain life.

One of the main bottle-neck in technology transfer is the current approach of the trickle-down effect rather than participatory bottom up approach where citizens are considered not just as partial beneficiaries but knowledgeable, active and centrally involved in both the upstream design and downstream delivery systems.

Background and Major Constraints

The key problem Africa is facing today is under-development that manifests itself in terms of abject poverty, diseases, ignorance and many other forms. It is regrettable to recognize and note that due to the severe but apparent lack of funds and other resources, many African counties have remained impoverished over the years. The weak fiscal status and the dim prospects for drastic economic improvement coupled with mismanagement, corruption in the continent also militate against any significant local support to alleviate the problems of under-development in the near future. From the experience of the industrialized countries it has become abundantly clear that for Africa to develop and survive this century, science, technology and innovation must take root in the continent to serve the people and improve productivity.

Global Environmental Change refers to a set of transformations of land, oceans and atmosphere driven by an interwoven system of socioeconomic and natural processes. Thus concurrent with the modern phenomena of globalization and to some extent as a consequence, human have begun to induce planetary-scale changes in earth’s life support systems.

Today human activities already match and sometimes exceed natural forces that regulate the earth systems. Current levels of carbon dioxide and methane are already well outside the range of natural variability over the years. Humans also now fix more nitrogen than nature dues. Furthermore particles emitted by human activities alter the energy balance of the planet as well as have adverse effects on human health.

It is however encouraging to note that the earth system is a very complex system with very many feedbacks to the extent that it can presumably still exhibit rapid global scale responses to changes in environmental conditions. However, a consequence of the interconnectedness of the coupled human environmental earth systems is that no region is independent of the rest of the world. For example the process at wok in the African region namely desertification and, biomass burning can have global consequences in the same way processes occurring in other regions can have influences in Africa such as particulate emissions from other continents affect rainfall patterns in Sub-Saharan Africa. Thus Global Environmental research in Africa requires not only Africa Scientists but also inputs from Scientists from outside the region. We are all interdependent.

It is therefore imperative that Global Warming and Climate Change that is real must be adequately addressed to bring sustainable development down to earth. To achieve this noble goal, traditional and indigeneous knowledge and technology including citizens engagement must be fully incorporated in the process of socio-economic development and more so in the developing world.

Science, Technology and Innovation Policy

It is today generally accepted that technology is “ the engine of economic growth” and technological innovation is indeed the principal currency of international competition. Thus technology plays a key role in attaining major goals in invigorating countries competitiveness in the global market place. For example the secondary applications of aerospace technology –spin-offs- span so broad a range of public needs and conveniences that is almost impossible to find an area of everyday life they have not improved and thus collectively represent a substantial dividend on the national investment in technology research.

A science and technology policy should therefore aim at improving the effectiveness of a national system of innovation, supporting public research and education, and sustaining the competitiveness of the business sector. So a major policy area should therefore focus on the promotion of innovation and investment, the diffusion of advanced technologies and creation of new firms. Thus a mechanism must be put in place for funding technological innovation by providing grants, low-interest loans and risk capital for supporting individual and cooperative research projects including downstream innovation that will mitigate the effects global warming and climate change.

Capacity Building

The highly interdisciplinary nature and mutuality of science in the development of new technology evolved mainly out of the capitalization on the solid foundation in science in the aspects of technology innovation, development and diffusion. Despite all the trailblazing advancements, our society is still experiencing an imbalance in improving literacy of citizens with the scientific technology development process, that has serious implications for public policy formulations, especially for developing countries.

Thus for Africa to enjoy the full benefit of Science and Technology they must be deemed critical to our effort to achieve economic well-being and indeed, social justice integrated into societal decision making structure and systematically supported by actions that nurture the nation’s capacities and indigenous talent/knowledge.

Since many of the urgent problems facing humanity today have potential solution derived from science and technology, it is vital that science and technology become part of the mainstream of education system. Thus courses that provide the basis of science and technology literacy and reasonable literacy and familiarity with scientific and technological culture, should be required at all levels and for all students including the many who do not intend to specialize in science and technology. This will create a science culture for a knowledge based society of the future.

Regarding Science Education we need to urgently introduce Inquiry-based Science Education (IBSE) at least from Pre- primary to primary school level. The conduct of science is also increasingly affected and indeed, driven by economic and other societal concerns .It is therefore necessary for the scientific community to be conscious of the concerns of the societies. Research agenda priorities derive not just from the wishes of scientists or their interest in certain problems, but from factors such as national needs, the availability of funding, access to tools of research and commercial prospects for deploying the resulting technologies such that almost always what get studied is decided by non-scientists.

Since the indigenous professionals generally understand their nation’s culture, they can easily communicate with it’s people. That is, they are uniquely placed to be disseminators of advanced knowledge and know-how to other critical local actors. This will greatly increase the likelihood that the new technologies will be well adapted to that society’s needs and cultures. The public can become sensitized on the important role of Science and Technology in society and their potential to help to solve urgent problems. A society that has become increasingly more dependent upon Science and Technology requires more professional scientists, more technically trained professionals and more citizens literate in science and technology who can make intelligent decisions on the increasing number questions of public policy with a technical component.

A nation that is involved in development, production or use of new technologies such as those deriving from biotechnology and bioengineering, should have the means to access and manage their benefits and risks. It is obvious that independent scientific advice improves decision making for public policies in terms of formulation, implementation, monitoring and evaluation. The effective government programmes can be greatly improved if inputs and independent review are provided by scientific, engineering and health experts. These are honest brokers who bridge the gap between what is technically possible and politically achievable. We know that many international deliberations from intellectual property rights to environmental and health regulations require governments to fully understand the science and technology premises that underlie the decisions they are negotiating. It is therefore vital that we create suitable mechanisms for providing important scientific and technological advice to government policy makers. That will also mitigate the effect of global warming and climate change.

Our governments must therefore ensure that indigeneous science and technology capacities are in place not only for adoption of new technology but also for helping in implementing public health, human safety and environmental guidelines or regulations that address potential side effects of new technologies. The possibilities of long term effects must be kept in mind when setting up such systems which must remain fully adaptable to rapid advances in scientific and engineering knowledge. It is therefore highly desirable that there be coordination of such efforts among nations to permit the sharing of the experiences and standardization of some of the risk assessments.

Traditional and Indigeneous Knowledge and Technology

There is no doubt that traditional and indigeneous knowledge and technology, particularly in the developing world, can enhance and indeed play decisive role in the management of sustainable environment, health, water resources, education, habitat, disaster and emergency response, food security, clean energy etc. In this paper, I will however focus only on health.

Plenty of our villages are small and literally cut off from the world and under-serviced. Most are subsistence farmers and indeed live below poverty line. The children are under and malnourished and at risk of preventable diseases.
We must expand social services for these people who are particularly disadvantaged in remote villages. The few government institutions that exist are far away and most are under equipped, including lack of staff. In any case they are often beyond the reach of those without money. Needless to point out that young doctors prefer working in towns. In addition to this, language barriers and cultural differences make communication even more difficult.

Social services particular in health, we must promote a combination of traditional and scientific methods during training of all cadres of medical personnel. The so called healers should first impart basic knowledge of scientific, natural and dental care including sexual and reproductive health.

We must urgently start supporting people who manufacture and use natural healing methods and recognize the potential of traditional medicine. As a first step, we should compile a handbook that will indicate disease patterns, diagnosis and cure including details of identification and the correct way to use medicinal plants.

We should then use media such as Radio and TV that feature interviews including public lectures that are informed and knowledge based. This programme could give information on symptoms and report on how to prevent and cure illnesses. Last but not least train two or more people in each village.

Citizen Engagement

It has become imperative that high- tech promotion should be of particular interest for developing countries because research in this areas has the general advantage that leads and require technological advancement in the frontier fields that will produce important spin-offs on the development of a country in which it is performed. Thus only knowledge based on local realities and environment can resolve the appropriateness of an imported technology to the community and turn them into new products and services that address national and local needs.

Citizen engagement is vital to ensure Science, Technology and Innovation respond to the challenges of international development agenda that includes Global Warming, Climate Change, Bioengineering and Biotechnology. There are many pathways to poverty reduction including social, cultural and institutional dimension that are key. This is so because Science, Technology and Innovation should be perceived as a part of a bottom-up participating process of development where citizen themselves are centre stage. Instead of citizen being viewed as passive beneficiaries of trickle-down development of technology transfer, they be considered as knowledgeable, active and centrally involved in both upstream choice and design of technologies and indeed their downstream delivery and regulation.

How about the following issues (1) What role can technologies play in future of people in developing world (2) How can poor people become more involved in shaping their own technological future (3) What makes Science and Technology to work for the poor (4) Which forces will be involved in shaping this (5) How can those who work in science and development assist and (6) How and where should Research and Development funds be directed

One of the main bottleneck of acceptance of new technologies currently is how risk and uncertainties arising from technological applications are regulated. In this connection the marginalized people should be involved in decision about innovation and technology. Thus it is time to adopt a new vision of citizenship that goes beyond public engagement with science encompassing, how science and technology agendas are framed, and the social purpose they serve and, who stands to gain or lose from them.

Conclusion

Thus advances in Science, Technology and Innovation (STI) should not neglect the poor people’s own priorities in trickle - down model since this approach will ignore poor people’s own perspective and concerns. For these technologies to provide well being for the citizens, innovation must be rooted in the local realities. Thus more participatory approach is needed where innovation are seen as part of broader system of governance and markets that extends from local to national , regional and international levels . No doubt this will increase access and indeed ownership for sustainability.

I have tried above to present historical perspective of the development of science and then not only to underscore but also to underpin policy issues and capacity building together with citizen engagement for sustainability in order to guarantee achieving both goals and the desired result. My conclusion is that it is vital to ensure well being of the society than so called wealth creation by providing the necessary infrastructure and an enabling environment. I have no doubt that Science, Technology and Innovation will make lasting contribution in these efforts to by engaging citizens and incorporating of traditional and indigeneous knowledge and technology.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Malo J. O., Physics and Industrial Development, 3rd Regional ANSTI Seminar in Physics, 5 – 7 August, Gaborone, Botswana
Malo J. O., Capacity building in Science and Technology :The African perspective, International Conference on Physics and Industrial Development- Bridging the Gap, 17- 19 January ,1994, New Delhi , India
Malo J. O., Physics in Africa World Congress of Physical Societies, 17- 22 September 2000
Malo J. O., Major constraints in Application of Science and Technology in National Development- The African Perspective, COPID 200, Durban, South Africa, 4-7 September 2000
Malo J. O., Physics in Contemporary World: The African Perspective: Third World Congress of Physical Societies, Berlin, Germany 15- 16 December 2000
ICSU, Report on New Genetics, Food and Agriculture: Scientific Discoveries – Societal Dilemmas, 2003
Inter Academy Council (IAC), Inventing a Better Future: A Strategy for Building Worldwide Capabilities in Science and Technology, January 2004
Prof. E. O. Odada, A Strategy for Global Environmental Change Research in Africa : Science Plan and Implementation Strategy, 2000 PASS Secretariat, Nairobi, Kenya.
Malo J. O., Technology Development and Citizen Engagement; Career Development in Bioengineering and Biotechnology, 2008, USNAS

KM & Governance

Preserving the Integrity of Folklore on Knowledge-based Service Platforms

storytelling — Sun, 20 Sep 2009 05:37:15 -0600

By: Mamello Thinyane, Alfredo Terzoli and Peter Clayton
Department of Computer Science, Rhodes University
P.O. Box 94, Grahamstown 6140, South Africa

Abstract:

Explorations of ICT as an enabler for community development are being undertaken by governments, non-governmental organizations and research institutions all across third-world nations. The pivotal role of ICT in development is acknowledged by all within the ICT4D domain and the effectiveness of well-situated interventions has been validated by the different ICT4D projects success stories. In our involvement with an ICT4D intervention (which spans the last three years) in Dwesa, South Africa, we developed and implemented eServices platforms with a focus on eCommerce, eGovernance and eHealth services. The undergirding layer in these platform has been the IK layer which allows for the integration of the local knowledge in manner that makes the deployed services relevant, allows the local communities to participate in the knowledge economy and activates, empowers, and positions the local communities within the global information and knowledge society.

In this paper we discuss our experiences from undertaking the project in Dwesa, and in particular we discuss the need for ethno-centricity and context sensitivity in the deployed IK based ICT solutions. This need for contextualization of ICT interventions is a result of the fact that the ICT solutions and technologies are developed within a specific worldview and context (in the case of knowledge based systems this in terms of the epistemological and ontological underpinnings of the knowledge, and the IKS dynamics that are specific to different communities) and therefore it is important that the technology is adapted to the specific community context. We discuss the OSCA knowledge matrix which highlights the nature of knowledge, that is typical in many of the third world communities, along the dimensions of ownership, social advantage, accessibility and confidentiality. For the different types of knowledge along the OSCA matrix, we discuss the different ICT mechanisms that ensure the integrity of the knowledge encapsulated in the developed IK service platform.

Introduction

ICT4D in general explores the ways in which ICT can be used in the context of community development. ICT is indeed providing the opportunities for dealing with rural poverty, inequality and exclusion and in many ways it is challenging the traditional paradigms of doing business, delivering services to citizens and running societal institutions [1]. But the key question at the center of all policy markers and governments is whether to invest in developing ICT capacities in the rural communities or rather to focus on the provision of other basic services (e.g. schools, hospitals, and government services). At the core of this question is really the need to understand the role that ICT can play in the development of a society and what the benefits and limitations can be expected from undertaking an ICT based approach to development.

Technology, in and of itself is not a panacea for the underdevelopment woes of communities, it is however a prerequisite for social development in this day and age [2]. Technology is neither a target towards community development and social well-being, but rather a tool for facilitating the achievement of desirable future for a society: well being, health, peace, and communality [3]. To a large extend, human activity depends on information and therefore a synergistic interaction of technology and information leads to a competitive advantage for societies [2]. ICT also increases information share-ability within communities and therefore can positively impact the provision of that information for commercial benefit, based on the differing valuation of the information to different people [4].

Knowledge Society Interventions

The current state of the art and the trends as far as knowledge networking technologies are concerned, presents numerous possibilities and benefits for human societies. The general context in which this research is undertaken is that of ICT4D. The specific research site for the project is a deep rural and marginalized community of Dwesa in South Africa. This community is characteristic of many third world rural realities in which ICT4D projects are undertaken. Situating the research in a specific area allows for an extensive and close study of the community and a situated determination of the direct needs and requirements of the community. The objective is still that the solutions developed and implemented in this specific context will be implementable in other similarly marginalized and rural communities.

The formal establishment of Dwesa as a research site for the ICT4D intervention came as a result of a link with previous research activities in the region by researchers from the Department of Anthropology at Rhodes University. The project undertaken in Dwesa, upon which this research is built, was initiated in 2005 with the preliminary discussions with the stakeholders in situ to assess its feasibility.

The initial objectives were to develop a prototype of an e-commerce platform for the arts and crafts entrepreneurs in the community, and also for the possible exploration of micro-tourism potential in the area. The introduction of the eCommerce aspect to the economic activities in Dwesa was aimed at activating the community towards greater involvement in economic activities in the region, but also at opening up the market base to incorporate wider international customers. The eCommerce portal was developed in direct interaction with the local arts and crafts entrepreneurs to integrate their specific needs and requirements into the platform.

The initial deployment of the services in Dwesa was centralized and predominantly web-based. Some of the above mentioned service portals are accessed primarily through a web interface to a server deployed in one of the schools. The successful deployment of the initial phase of the project paved the way to an alternative conceptualization and revision of the intervention in Dwesa. The initial phase of the project was centered around the eCommerce platform and the establishment of the associated infrastructure to support the effective utilization of the portal. The subsequent realization of the platform is to develop it as a multi-functional, multi-service, distributed communication platform for the local community. This integrates into the platform the flexibility to deploy a plethora of community based services in a manner that is distributed across the different points of access in the community. One of the key features of this new architecture and platform is that it is an inherently multi-service platform. The provision of eCommerce, eGovernment, eHealth and eJudiciary services would be built in an integrated manner on the platform as opposed to as independent service portals.

Ethno-centricity and context-sensitivity

One of the primary tenets of the discipline of ethnocomputing is the realization of the culture specific influences on computing and subsequently on the Internet [5]. Tedre et al also identify three levels of uniqueness in the human enterprise, depicted in Figure 1 [6].

At the lowest of the levels is the general human nature that is common to all human beings, the influences that emanate from this level are universal and are appreciated globally. The next level is the cultural level of uniqueness, which is encapsulates values, ideas, preferences that have been learned over time and that are part of an identity of a specific group or category of people. The topmost level, and the smallest, is the personality level. At this level, the variation is as large as there are people of earth, and it is the level at which the individuality of human being is expressed in terms of values, beliefs, and preferences.

In the consideration of ICT in development, the focus is at the level of a culture, the middle level in Figure 1. The aspects of computing that are universal and that are aligned with the general human nature, are easily transplanted from one community to another. Aspects that are cultural however, need to be considered, adapted and validated for adequacy within the environment where they are being implemented [7]. ICT4D should therefore take into consideration the ethnographic considerations and expressions of a community to avoid the technology determinism flaw that has plagued many ICT4D projects [8].

The realization of an ethnographic ICT for development intervention necessarily has to address the issues at the interface between technology and the culture of a community. More appropriately, it has to address the encoded cultural expressions in the technology and their interaction with the culture of the community in which the intervention is being undertaken. This intervention strategy is positioned within the premise that for rural communities to be active participants and peers in the global eSociety, the technology has to be relevant and contextualized to their environment.

OSCA Knowledge Matrix

Knowledge systems dynamics differ from one community to another based on numerous factors. Some of the factors that characterize different communities and that directly influence the usage and exchange of knowledge include: the levels of social stratification and the relationship between the different strata, the general power relation dynamics, and the extend of communal orientation within the community. These factors have a direct bearing on the realization of knowledge systems in communities and form part of the critical points of departure in the implementations of knowledge systems for different communities. For example, a knowledge system developed for a fairly egalitarian community where there is a cultural sense of openness and sharing would implement far less features around confidentiality and privacy than for a society with opposite cultural orientation.

This section therefore highlights the different factors and the associated dynamics that are specific to the Dwesa community, that have direct bearing of the realization of a knowledge platform for that community. These factors are characteristic of other similarly rural, marginalized, African communities.

In Nonaka's SECI framework of knowledge, he makes a distinction between two types of knowledge: tacit knowledge and explicit knowledge. Within the SECI framework, a process of externalization provides access to the internal tacit knowledge through explicit expression by the individual. In understanding the specific knowledge dynamics in Dwesa, the focus is on explicit knowledge as this is the knowledge that is accessible and codifiable.

The categorization of knowledge in this sections is based on a superficial aggregation of similar types of knowledge that exhibit similar characteristics, and not on any ontological or epistemological considerations. The differences in the categories of knowledge highlight specific requirements for the knowledge platform. The different categories of knowledge have been elucidated through discussions with the Dwesa community members, individuals from the Xhosa culture and other South African cultures. We present these different types of knowledge in a graph we have developed, called the OSCA knowledge matrix, which is based on the mapping of different knowledge types along the dimensions of Ownership, Social advantage, Confidentiality and Accessibility (Fig. 2):

Common knowledge - This is the knowledge that is common to every human being and not particular to any locality or a group of people. This knowledge once codified, is accessible in the public domain and every individual is entitled to access, use and benefit from it.
Shared-cultural knowledge - This is the knowledge that is specific to a cultural group. This knowledge is identifiable with the culture and can be assumed to be owned by that cultural group. Examples of this knowledge include folktales, stories, proverbs and riddles. This knowledge also includes arts and crafts patterns and artifacts. The issue of ownership of this kind of knowledge is a contentious one and at the core of it is the concern for the commercial exploitation that sometimes occurs. While this knowledge can be assumed to be owned by a specific ethnic and cultural group, it is however accessible to the public.
Specific group knowledge - Within the Xhosa culture (i.e. the culture of the people in Dwesa), and in fact within other South African cultures, there is knowledge that is associated with different groups. These groups form around age, gender, social status, or ethnicity. The kind of knowledge in this category is not only owned by the specific group, but it is also private and confidential (at varying levels) to that group. Examples of this kind of knowledge include, the secret knowledge of the amadoda (the men, vs the boys) in the Xhosa culture, or banna in the Sesotho culture. Access to this kind of knowledge is normally associated with an initiation process into the group, which in this particular case is through the initiation schools. This kind of knowledge is exchanged and communicated within the confines of the group. This knowledge is associated with key social and power dynamics and in a sense access to this knowledge (or membership to the group through the initiation process) gives an individual certain social advantages. An example from the Xhosa culture is that the males who have not been to the bush (the initiation school) have lesser roles to play in family ceremonies, are held at a lesser regard as amankwenkwe (the boys) within the community.
Specialist knowledge - An example of this type of knowledge is the medical knowledge of the amagqirha (the traditional healers) in the Xhosa culture. This knowledge is very confidential and secretive at best. It is owned by a specific individual or a close knit group of individuals. This knowledge gives the owners an advantage within their community or society. This social advantage can be in a form of the prestige that the person gets in the community, or the direct competitive advantage from the point of view of the commercial benefits of being the healer in the community. Access to this kind of knowledge is very strict and only a few people (e.g. a protege, an heir) have access to this knowledge.

Knowledge platform and related projects.

The OSCA knowledge matrix has informed the development of a knowledge platform, called KnowNet, for the Dwesa community. The KnowNet platform underlies the eServices portals that are developed for the community. For example, the eHealth portal is developed to interface and to integrate with the local medical IK. The encapsulation of knowledge is preformed at two levels. At one level, the coding of the logic and the implementation of procedural functions represents the internal knowledge about the functioning of the platform. At the core of the platform, is another level at which knowledge is explicitly encapsulated in ontologies and folksonomies. This happens at the knowledge base layer. Ontologies provide the formal and explicit specification of conceptualization of knowledge. Ontologies are domain-specific and narrowly defined for the particular area of knowledge. On the other hand, folksonomies allow for a freely structured, widely distributed, bottom-up, categorization of knowledge entities. Folksonomies represent and reveal the wide spread conceptualization and the emergent structure of knowledge.

A number of ontologies have been developed, specifically contextualized to Dwesa. These ontologies represent the following key areas of targeted eServices deployment as part of the larger project undertaken with this community:

Health/Medicine – the knowledge encapsulated in this ontology is the traditional medical knowledge that is part of the every day life in Dwesa. This knowledge becomes crucial in the implementation of eHealth portals.
Agriculture – the community in Dwesa is predominantly subsistence farmers, and this is a central area of community life. The IK around agriculture is contained in this ontology, which allows for the development of services that support farming in the region.
Commerce – the potential for commercial activities in Dwesa is very high. This could be in terms of micro-tourism, arts and crafts entrepreneurship, and eco-tourism as a result of the availability of a nature reserve in the area. This ontology encapsulates the knowledge around these specific areas to enable to eCommerce customer to have an improved experience in the utilization of the portals.
Cultural knowledge - the cultural knowledge is an important aspect of any community, and the usage of this type of knowledge permeates a variety of community services. This ontology therefore encapsulates the history, the folklore and the practices of the specific community.

Related ICT machanisms

Folksonomies and ontologies represent two positions on the spectrum of KR. On one end is the structuring of knowledge in organic, bottom up folksonomies in which the structure of the underlying knowledge emerges as the users associate content with different semantic tags. On the other end is the formalized, top-down, structured ontologies in which the knowledge gets populated into the ontologies that have been design by the experts. These two approaches to knowledge management both have their advantages and disadvantages, which are applicable in the context of the knowledge platform.

The implementation of support for folksonomies within the platform is implemented in a manner that allows the users of the platform to define tags that are associated with the different IK that is added and available on the platform. The weighting of these tags results in an emergent classification of the knowledge in a manner that represents the users' understanding of the structure of the knowledge. This emergent structure as a result of tagging the knowledge items, can be utilized to inform the revision of the associated platform ontologies . The tags associated with content can also add a weighting on the index searches that are performed on the platform. The utilization of folksonomies within the platform therefore allows for KR that is contextualized, due to being informed by the users' ontological views.

Confidentiality

One of the culture sensitive aspects that have been taken into account in the development of KnowNet is the confidentiality considerations associated with the different types of knowledge in Dwesa (and generally in rural marginalized communities). We discussed the OSCA knowledge matrix, which highlights the different types of knowledge and the associated levels of confidentiality in the community. The knowledge platform provides permissions control mechanisms to enable the specifying of the different confidentiality requirements. These requirements are handled as follows:

For the specialist knowledge (type D in Fig. 2), there is highest requirement for confidentiality and this kind of knowledge is only shared between a few specific individuals. This is achieved in KnowNet through an option to allow the owner of the knowledge to share it with a specific person already on their list of friends (i.e. related by a dwesa:knows or sub-class thereof) and to limit access from the rest of the users of the platform (Fig. 3 (a) and (b)).

The specific group knowledge (type C in Fig. 1 is shared between a small group of individuals and the group membership is typically based on a relational association between the members. Within the platform, this is enabled through permissions that are associated with a relationship type (Fig. 3 (c)). For example, one can set the read flag only for the people within the same family (i.e. associated by the dwesa:isFamily predicate) or people within the same clan group.

A key consideration for the shared cultural knowledge is the establishment of the ownership of the knowledge. On the KnowNet platform this is achieved through the association of every unit of knowledge authored with a specific user, or a specific cultural group. The actual mechanisms of enforcing the protection of the knowledge (from exploitation and abuse) are within the legislative domain in terms of copyright laws and policies.

The common knowledge is accessible and available to every user of the platform and therefore such knowledge can be authored with the read and write permissions set On for the group everyone (Fig. 3).

KnowNet implements access and permission control mechanisms that offer flexibility to cater for the different relational groupings within the community of users. The implementation of these mechanisms is possible due to the functional separation of content (i.e. knowledge base tier) from the domain logic (i.e. interaction tier) and the integration of the relational dynamics (through the social networking tier) as articulated through the PIASK architecture [9]. The platform is therefore validated as adequate for the purpose of encapsulating different types of knowledge, from the point of view of implementing the necessary confidentiality and ownership requirements as per the OSCA knowledge matrix.

IK lifecycle

The realization of the platform has been with a direct focus on being situated within the context of rural, marginalized areas as typified by Dwesa. Some of the key differences with such contexts are associated with the social dynamics, the socio-technological constraints, and the infrastructural limitations. The notion of IK is predominantly (within literature) applied to these kind of rural contexts, although in reality every community and society has knowledge that is indigenous within that community. The processes associated with IK are therefore universal and apply equally in different contexts. The life cycle discussed by Woytek in [10], encapsulates the key processes that are associated with IK. Although the life cycle is discussed from the understanding of IK being a special, different type of knowledge (i.e. not universally available) and from an external perspective (i.e. from the perspective of someone studying the IK of a specific community), it still highlights the crucial factors in the utilization of IK.

These processes are handled within the knowledge platform as follows:

Recognition and identification - the first stage in the knowledge life cycle is the recognition and the identification of the knowledge sources that are available in a community. This process in a sense occurs within the externalization process in Nonaka's SECI framework (Section [par:Knowledge-in-society]). Externalization results in the knowledge being available in a codified form. This process is therefore facilitated in KnowNet by the ability to add new content on the platform in an explicit format (e.g. a recording of a folktale, or authoring a story).
Validation - Once the knowledge is available in an explicit form, the next process involves validating that knowledge along the dimensions of significance, relevance, and reliability. This process is intrinsically a community process, in that the significance, relevance and reliability can only be ascertained in the context of people accessing the knowledge and commenting on it. KnowNet provides a feature for the users of the platform to validate the different content that is available on the platform. The users are able to give a vote on the content, in terms of its reliability, relevance and accuracy. The accumulated voting for the content is then calculated and made available to inform the usage of the content. The validation weights from the users are also useful in ranking the search results on the platform. The net effect from this validation mechanism is that the content that is most reliable, relevant and accurate will hopefully get the highest weighting on the platform and increased availability, and the content that the users do not find reliable, relevant and accurate gets the low weightings.
Documentation - The process of documenting the IK primarily contributes to the externalization of the knowledge and therefore this is handled through the mechanism to add new knowledge on the platform.
Storage - The knowledge base layer is primarily responsible for the storage of the knowledge that is available on the platform.
Transfer and Dissemination - Intrinsic in the platform is the facilitation of the exchange of knowledge between different people and making the knowledge available. KnowNet provides features for the knowledge to be accessed via any of the channels (implemented via the Access layer agents) that are available on the platform, thus increasing the accessibility of the knowledge. For example, a user can call into the platform, browse the specific content and request that the associated file be emailed to them.

The support for the different processes in the IK lifecycle aligns the platform for effective integration into the communities as far as representing and encapsulating the local knowledge (i.e. IK) within that community.

Conclusion

The proliferation of ICT4D interventions is necessitating the exploration of mechanisms to position the undertaken projects within the context and environment of deployment. We have discussed an ICT4D project that we are undertaking in Dwesa, South Africa. Within that, we have highlighted the importance of integrating IK within the developed eServices platform. In order to formalize the dynamics associated with different types of IK, we have developed the OSCA knowledge matrix. We then highlighted the available ICT solutions towards meeting the requirements for the 4 different types of knowledge that have been identified in marginalized rural communities.

References

[1] - Bhatnagar, S., Information Technology and Development Foundation and Key Issues, Information and Communication Technology in Rural development: Case Studies from India. World Bank Institute, pp. 1--12, 2000

[2] - Castells, M., Information technology, globalization and social development, United Nations Research Institute for Social Development, 1999

[3] - Hietanen, O., The Global Challenges of eDevelopment - From Digital Divides Towards Empowerment and Sustainable Global Information Society, in Seminar of global perspectives of development communication, University of Tampere, 2004

[4] - Singh, B., Information Technology for Rural Development in India, State University of New York at Buffalo, 2002

[5] - Tedre, M. and Sutinen, E. and Kahkonen, E. and Kommers, P., Ethnocomputing: ICT in cultural and social context, Communications of the ACM, vol. 49, no. 1, pp. 126--130, 2006

[6] - Tedre, M. and Sutinen, E. and Kahkonen, E. and Kommers, P., Appreciating the knowledge of students in computer science education in developing countries, Proceedings of International Conference on Information Technology Research and Education (ITRE2003), pp. 174--178, 2003

[7] - Thinyane, M. and Dalvit, L. and Terzoli, A. and Clayton, P., The Internet in rural communities: unrestricted and contextualized, in Proceedings of ICT Africa conference, 2008

[8] - Thinyane, M. and Terzoli, A. and Clayton, P., Transitions Towards a Knowledge Society: Aspectual pre-evaluation of a Culture-Sensitive Implementation Framework, in Learning to live in the knowledge society, Springer IFIP - Learning of live in the knowledge society, vol. 281, pp. 271-278, 2008

[9] - Thinyane, M. and Dalvit, L. and Terzoli, A. and Clayton, P., Towards a Model of an Ontology Based, Multi-Modal and Multimedia Knowledge Portal for Marginalized Rural Communities., in Proceedings of IEEE Information Communication Technologies International Symposium, Fez - Morocco, 3rd - 5th April, 2007

[10] - Woytek, R. and Gorjestani, N. and Africa Regional Office, Indigenous Knowledge for Development: A Framework for Action, World Bank, 1998

KM & Social Challenges

Intellectual property law protection for traditional knowledge/indigenous knowledge systems in Southern Africa

storytelling — Mon, 14 Sep 2009 07:39:28 -0600

Intellectual property law protection for traditional knowledge/indigenous knowledge systems in Southern Africa and selected Asian jurisdictions- A view from developing and least developing countries.

Author: Amos Saurombe

ABSTRACT

The discussion of Traditional Knowledge as a subject of intellectual property protection continues to take centre stage at different fora. It is particularly relevant for developing and least developing countries whose Traditional Knowledge mechanisms continue to be exploited without accruing any benefits. The most convenient way to protect Traditional Knowledge is to fit it into the existing intellectual property system. This is difficult to realise as this paper will show. The situation in South Africa is not different. The debate took center stage in December 2007 when the cabinet approved a policy framework entitled ‘The Protection of Traditional Knowledge through the Intellectual Property System’ and a Bill has been drafted that will amend the South African intellectual property laws to make provision for the protection of traditional knowledge. Part one of this paper will deal with traditional knowledge in general. The South African and Malawian experiences form the second component. The third part deals with Asian examples.

Introduction

A universally accepted definition for traditional knowledge has not been found. This is because traditional knowledge may be perceived very differently by indigenous communities, governments, lawyers and international organisations. Despite the difficulty in finding a comprehensive definition, one thing is certain, traditional knowledge has been placed on the international agenda and its entitlement to protection against misappropriation has been recognized. Various methods of protection have been proposed with no clear choice that meets the desired results. The World intellectual Property organization1 is currently using the following definition:

The term traditional knowledge refers to the content or substance of knowledge resulting from intellectual activity in a traditional context, and includes the know-how, skills, innovations, practices and learning that form part of traditional knowledge systems and knowledge embodying traditional lifestyles of indigenous and local communities, or contained in codified knowledge systems passed between generations. It is not limited to any specific technical field and may include agricultural, environmental and medicinal knowledge, and knowledge associated with genetic resources.

International efforts for Protection of traditional knowledge

The debate on protection of indigenous knowledge is topical especially for developing and developed countries. Intergovernmental organizations such as UNESCO, WIPO, WTO, UNEP and UNCTAD2 have opened debates on the possible protection of indigenous knowledge using the intellectual property system. Led largely by debate from developing nations, UNESCO formulated the Convention on the Protection of the Diversity of Cultural Contents and Artistic Expressions and this has been adopted recently by the member states.

Unfortunately, negotiations at the WTO around amendments to the Trade related Aspects of Intellectual Property law Agreement3 on traditional knowledge have collapsed. Article 27 (3) (b) of the TRIPs Agreement empowers member states to consider protection of traditional knowledge using intellectual property systems. During discussions on the review of the TRIPs Agreement at Dohar, Qatar, developing countries proposed amendments of Article 27 (3) (b) to cater for the protection of the use of traditional knowledge that leads to an invention. Developed nations are opposed to this, leading to the collapse of the negotiations. TRIPs has undone everything that the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) has sought to provide. TRIPS does not allow for the full exercise of national sovereignty over biodiversity because it obliges countries to enact intellectual property rights on plant varieties; it does not allow communities to seek a share of benefits obtained from patented biodiversity since there is no provision requiring patentees to disclose the country of origin of any biological materials; it does not require patentees to fulfill access obligation towards genetic resources, it therefore condones and facilitates biopiracy4. The WIPO has established an Intergovernmental Committee (IGC) to initiate discussions on the protection of traditional knowledge, genetic and biological resources and folklore using intellectual property systems. Although treaties can protect these issues under discussion, many developed nations are opposed to formulation of such treaties and negotiations are on the verge of collapse.
The United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), which is the custodian of the convention on Biological Biodiversity (CBD), has requested WIPO, WTO and FAO to consider protection and benefiting of local communities that have contributed to an invention or intellectual property development. WIPO convened the ICG mentioned above and UNCTAD has voiced support, emphasizing the economic value of traditional knowledge systems. Regional organisations such as Asia and the Pacific and the African Union have started to issue treaties and conventions regarding the regulation of traditional knowledge. Member states of these regions are busy formulating legislation.

The General Assembly of the United Nations adopted the Declaration on the Rights of indigenous Peoples on 13 September 2007 and this constitutes a seminal document in the field of traditional Knowledge. Article 31 of the declaration states that:
‘Indigenous peoples have the right to maintain, control, protect and develop their cultural heritage, traditional knowledge and traditional cultural expressions, as well as the manifestations of their sciences, technologies and cultures, including human and genetic resources, seeds medicines, knowledge of the properties of fauna and flora, oral traditions, literature and designs, sports and traditional games and visual and performing arts. They also have the right to maintain, control, protect and develop their intellectual property over such cultural heritage, traditional knowledge and traditional cultural expressions. In conjunction with indigenous peoples, states shall take effective measures to recognize and protect the exercise of these rights’
Article 27 (3) (b) of TRIPs gives powers to member states to consider protection of traditional knowledge using existing intellectual property systems, as well as geographical indications, community-based rights and sui generis forms of protection. With the importance of the preservation of traditional knowledge recognized on a global scale, there are a few questions that need some considerations: how should traditional knowledge be protected? What do indigenous communities wish to protect and what is the best method of achieving this?

The above questions can be answered only once the objectives and needs of indigenous communities have been ascertained. It may be that these communities wish to benefit from the commercialization of their cultural expressions. They would then require protection in order to be compensated for the use of their knowledge. Others may wish to prevent the unauthorised use of their traditional knowledge and would require the means to control and prevent the use by others who do not form part of the community. Communities may require the recordal of their traditional knowledge in written form, which may require registration.
The most convenient way to protect traditional knowledge is to fit it into an existing intellectual property system. According to Hoffman intellectual property can be thought of as the use or value of an idea, such as inventions, designs, literary and artistic works and symbols, names and performances5. Most forms of intellectual property protection, such as copyright trademark and patent law grant exclusive property rights to authors and artists in their creations. In the classic scheme of intellectual property, the granting of private rights provides incentives for creation and invention and thus promotes knowledge and culture. Hoffman further acknowledges the limits to the rights with respect to the idea, namely that these rights are invariably focused on the physical manifestation of the idea. There is in exclusive right to the mere abstract idea. Indigenous people worldwide have the added difficulty in asserting property claims because national legislation and the courts do not recognize collective rights in cultural property. The traditional systems of intellectual property protection do not suit protection of traditional knowledge, since these are individualistic systems whereas traditional knowledge is held by communities. In addition, there is a further complication where different indigenous communities in a country, or even in different countries, have the same or similar traditional knowledge. Furthermore, the protection provided by traditional systems of intellectual property protection has a limited time-frame, whereas traditional knowledge is held in perpetuity.

On the other hand the WTO has limited influence on the protection of indigenous knowledge. It can only enforce compliance with the threat of trade sanctions. In the case of protecting indigenous knowledge, most treaties are non binding. Every clause that deals with benefit sharing is contested and refused. The ILO convention No. 169 which says a lot about legal standards for indigenous rights fail to protect the intellectual property rights of indigenous people. Whereas the UN Declaration on the rights of intellectual property recognises the rights, it will be a non-binding document which cannot be legally enforced. In the International Undertaking on Plant Genetic Resources (IUPGR), developed nations have successfully blocked an international recognition on Farmers Rights for the last 12 years. They also contest any notion of paying for the use of traditional germ plasm in a benefit sharing arrangement. The CBD which has attempted to push through interests of Indigenous Communities has been thwarted by the American refusal to rectify it and accept its conditions. In the CBD, the most contentious and so far unaccepted Article is Article 16 which deals with transferring technology as part of the deal to use the indigenous knowledge and biodiversity of local communities in different countries.

Finally, in terms of patent protection, there is a restricted interpretation of what is patentable, namely that the invention is required to be novel, inventive and have industrial applicability. Traditional knowledge is something that develops incrementally over time, is informal and is common knowledge to the community. Nevertheless, Australia, Canada, New Zealand and Portugal have used their existing intellectual property systems to protect traditional knowledge.

Potential Sui generis protection models6

In an effort to extend protection to traditional knowledge, various countries have adopted existing IP systems to the needs of traditional knowledge holders through sui generis measures. These take different forms, for example, the Chinese have a team of patent examiners specializing in traditional Chinese medicine. South African is seeking to join several countries like Peru, Costa Rica, Portugal and Thailand in adopting sui generis laws. The approaches available in the literature can be broadly divided into Defensive and Positive groupings. While positive protection would refer to the acquisition by the TK holder of an IPR to such as a patent, defensive protection refers to provisions adopted in the law or by a regulatory authority to prevent IPR claims to knowledge, a cultural expression or a product being granted to unauthorized persons or organisations. The distinction between the two is not always clear in the sense that positive mechanisms might actually give rise to defensive effects.

Sui generis forms of protection have also been used in Tunisia, Panama, Philippines, and Pacific regional systems. The USA has adopted special intellectual property regimes to protect the collective rights of indigenous communities. The USA has enacted the Arts and Crafts Act of 1990 that protects the arts and crafts of Native Americans. The decision as to which form of protection to take is not an easy one to make. WIPO has been grappling with this decision for some time. WIPO’s Inter-Governmental Committee on Intellectual Property and Genetic Resources, Traditional knowledge and Folk Law has been working since 2001 to find a suitable system to protect the traditional knowledge of indigenous people. It is currently considering the protection of traditional knowledge through two complementary processes. Firstly, the consideration of an agreed list of issues concerning the protection of traditional knowledge, and secondly consideration of a draft set of revised objectives and principles for the protection of traditional knowledge are as follows’

Definition of traditional knowledge that should be protected
Who should benefit from any such protection; who holds the rights to protect traditional knowledge?
What objective is sought to be achieved through according intellectual protection to such knowledge (economic, social, moral rights)?
What forms of behavior in relation to the protectable traditional knowledge should be considered unacceptable/illegal?
Should there be any exceptions or limitations to rights attaching to protectable traditional knowledge; for how long should protection be accorded?
To what extent do existing intellectual property rights already afford protection;
What gaps need to be filled?
What sanctions or penalties should apply to dealings considered being unacceptable or illegal?
Which issues should be dealt with internationally and which nationally, or what divisions should be made between intellectual regulation and national regulation?
How should foreign rights holders or beneficiaries be treated?

The South African Scenario

The protection of indigenous knowledge in South Africa cannot ignore the international and regional trends, but protection within the South African context is vital and achievable. The Bill proposes protection under the intellectual property system, databases, sui generis laws and registers. The Dti initiated amendments to the Patents Act 1978, now the Patents Amendment Act 2005. The Patents Amendment Act 2005 is being used at the WTO and to a certain extent at WIPO as model legislation in this regard. Trademarks, copyright, designs and geographical indications are earmarked to provide similar protection to traditional knowledge.

In 2004, the Cabinet approved the indigenous knowledge systems policy. A number of different government departments were stakeholders in the development of this policy. These included the Department of Arts and Culture (DESAC), the Department of Trade and Industry (Dti) Department of Health (DOH) and the Department of Science and Technology (DST). The policy identified four main indigenous knowledge system policy drivers:

The affirmation of African culture values in the face of globalization- a clear imperative given the need to promote a positive African identity.
Practical measures for the development of services provided by traditional knowledge holders and practitioners, with a particular focus on traditional medicine, but also including areas such as agriculture, indigenous languages and folk lore.
Underpinning the contribution of indigenous knowledge to the economy- the role of indigenous knowledge in employment and wealth creation.
Interfaces with other knowledge systems, for example when indigenous knowledge is used together with modern bio-technology in pharmaceutical and other sectors to increase the rate of innovation.

This policy provided a broad basis for recognition, understanding, integration and promotion of indigenous knowledge resources within South Africa.

The dti has approached cabinet and the Portfolio Committee for trade and industry for approval and initial briefing on the policy and the Bill were published on the 5th of May 2008 in the Government Gazette no. 31026 for public consultation. The closing date for comments was 15 June 20087. The public consultations took the form of bringing together students, academic, traditional leaders, and indigenous communities. One discussion on the deliberation at this consultation session is captured in this paper.

Domains of Intellectual Property, extending protection to traditional knowledge

The following discussion focuses on the extent the Bill has managed to use the Intellectual property system in its current form with minimum changes made.

Trade Marks

The Bill invites communities that own the original traditional knowledge trademarks to license such a trademark. They need to comply with all licensing requirements for example prior informed consent. The communities must negotiate for a royalty fee and must preferably form an organisation to manage these types of traditional knowledge-trademarks. From a business perspective, trademarks may be used in all sectors. International markets for local products will be sought and protection in those jurisdictions can be obtained. Small businesses can prepare themselves for export markets by securing protection of trademarks/geographical indications, e.g. “Rooibos/honeybush tea” that has both a reputable domestic and international market. Traditional knowledge holders in the area of Trade Marks/geographical indications can also use cultural names or signs. These names may be registered under legislation protecting intellectual property type issues. Rooibos tea is a good example of a geographical indicator since it can only be grown in South Africa, Western Cape in the Cederberg Mountains. The registration of rooibos tea as a trademark in the USA resulted in the blockage of exports of rooibos tea from South Africa into the USA. The Dti is currently helping with the deregistration of this trademark. The government should move fast and declare rooibos tea a geographical indicator (GI). Trading partners should be approached to recognize the new GI.

Patents

Traditional communities have a lot to offer in this area. There are patents that are associated with cultural paintings of clay utensils and artistic works in skins, clothing and other textile material. In the agricultural sector, traditional communities also contribute in supplying their knowledge for inventions and traditional farming methods. Traditional communities have also given valuable contributions to the pharmaceutical sector. Two well known examples where traditional knowledge has been developed commercially are as follows; a number of South African communities have been using the Buchu plant to relieve stomach pains. The Khoi and San people have been using the Hoodia plants for suppressing thirst and hunger. The community worked with the CSIR and their knowledge led to an invention (P57) of the slim pill. Recently the European Patent Office (EPO) granted a patent based on this traditional knowledge. The CSIR and the Khoi/San have a benefit sharing agreement. The Patents Amendment Act of 2005 now regulates this regime. The Dti has identified the pharmaceutical industry as needing nourishment. By regulation of the use of the traditional knowledge systems these communities should benefit from the provisions of their knowledge to commercialisation partners.

Copyright

The Bill is seeking to strengthen copyright laws relating to folklore music. The folkloric music has to be owned by the community or the government for anonymous folklore. This will be realized by a drive to research and compile databases of folklore. The community and government can negotiate benefit-sharing agreement flowing from the use of this folklore.

Designs, Geographic indications and traditional knowledge

Similar approaches as indicated in the discussions on trademarks, patents and copyright will be adopted. Communities have to agree on how to manage paintings, designs and related artifacts.

To date certain legislative amendments have been enacted that will give effect to Article 27 (3) (b) of TRIPS. Protection of traditional knowledge holders from exploitation by commercial players can be achieved by ensuring that their traditional knowledge rights are protected and that agreements are entered into by themselves and the commercial partner that provide for equitable benefit sharing. One mechanism for regulation of benefits sharing is provided in the Department of Environmental Affairs and Tourism (DEAT) that initiated Environmental Management: Biodiversity Act 10 of 2004 and its regulations, which are still in draft form.

General shortcomings of the Bill

During the public hearings at the North West University8, the following issues were raised by Academics, traditional leaders, indigenous community representatives and students.

The Bill was considered too bulky, covering too many areas of intellectual property. Other proposed separate bills for each and every of the following, patents, trademarks, copyright, designs, geographic indications and traditional knowledge.
The role of the individual in the consultation process is not defined. The impact of individual suggestions towards the Bill could easily be ignored.
The traditional communities did not understand the role of databases and ownership of such mechanisms.
The registration processes still follows the first come first serve approach. This can be abused by those with resources and have access to the registration office.
The position of community representatives is not clearly defined in the Act. Some prefer the use of traditional leadership but others have reservations. This has resulted because of the corrupt nature of some of these traditional leaders who may pursue selfish interest.
Some Academics preferred a Bill that is more African oriented, with less of Western style of intellectual property type of protection.
The Chiefs are concerned by the fast deteriorating and dissolving nature of the traditional community owing to the effects of urbanisation and migration.
Some communities exist across two or more jurisdictions rendering the need to provide benefits under a South African initiative complex.
Some traditional knowledge does not belong to a single community. Who is entitled to the benefits for such exploitation?
Some stakeholder felt left out of the drafting of the Bill with the Chiefs feeling they are being marginalised.
Some communities feel that they need and should be afforded other methods of protection other than the Bill.
They prefer other forms of testing besides Western laboratory tests for traditional medicines.
Traditional communities feel IKS protection is perpetual; there is no need to follow a renewal process that is cumbersome.
The essence of geographical indication can be questioned in an environment that share common names and cultures.
The Bill is silent on protection of traditional healing methods that are associated with taboos. They resist the influence of Western technology.
Research on traditional foods is lacking in the Bill.
The Bill is silent on resolution of disputes. It is highly likely that dispute will rise when communities and individuals fight for benefits. Provision of conciliation and arbitration according to the Arbitration Act of 1956 could help the advisory purpose of the council.
The Bill must then thus indicate and state the terms of reference of the Council with regard to alternative dispute resolution.
Mechanisms of dispute resolutions must accommodate both indigenous and Western conflict resolution mechanisms.
Council membership has to be based on expertise. They should be chosen from Communities who possess traditional knowledge.

The Malawian Experience

The scope of protection of traditional knowledge in Malawi is still in its infancy. For the purpose of a comparative experience, the Malawian experience will not be discussed at the same level with the South African forms of protection. However it is important to mention that their attempt at protection points to the positive nature of developments in a country that is considered very poor. The constitution of Malawi9 gives rights that have a direct bearing on protection of traditional knowledge. The constitution recognizes the cultural and language rights10 Section 26 provides that;

“Every person shall have the right to use the language and to participate in the cultural life of his or her choice”11

Further, Section 28 provides that every person shall have the right to acquire property and in this context property includes both tangible and intangible assets. Subsection 2 to this section further provides that no person shall be arbitrarily deprived of property.

The copyright Act of Malawi12 makes no provision for the protection of folklore. This Act delineates the subject matter of copyright as copyright in the expressions of folklore that vests in perpetuity in the government on behalf and for the benefit of the people of Malawi13. Authorization of the use any use of expressions of folklore maybe either general or special and can be granted upon written application to the minister. The Malawian experience shows the extent of how current and existing legislation can be given an interpretation that favors the protection of traditional knowledge, but most importantly how crucial it is to keep the door open for future avenues of rights protection.

Perspectives from Asia

The countries of the Asia-Pacific region have a rich cultural heritage, including literature, arts and crafts, music, visual arts, ceremonies, architecture associated with particular sites, as well as forms of traditional knowledge related to forestry, medicines and medical practices, agriculture and conservation and sustainable use of biological diversity. There is concern at the widespread unfair exploitation of the cultural heritage of these nations for commercial and business interests. Important elements of traditional knowledge, art forms and folklore are being lost rapidly in the absence of a proper legal protection mechanism at national and international levels. The extent of the absence of protection at international level has already been discussed above.

Tribal people are being increasingly displaced by industry and development projects. Adivasi homelands have now become included in national parks and sanctuaries, resulting in the displacement of the people who lived there for hundreds of years14. Ethnic strife in many regions of Asia has threatened indigenous and tribal communities, destroying their habitat which is an essential element of the exercise, current and future existence of their traditional knowledge.

Earlier tribal areas were used in the name of development without their consent, for building dams, roads, canals, mining and hydro-electric projects. Increased awareness among the Adivasis who now demand their rights, together with sustained work by civil society, has improved the situation so that it is now mandatory to conduct a public hearing to hear the views of the people before a project can start, both in tribal and non tribal areas15.

The pharmaceutical industry in the Asia-Pacific region has not been spared. The Kava (Piper methysticum) a plant endemic to the region has been traditionally used to alleviate stress and anxiety. It has two known medicinal uses. These are asthma and tuberculosis. The recent commercialization of Kava highlights many of the potential benefits and risks involved in the marketing of species new to international consumers16. The entry of kava into western markets has led to an explosion in demand for the products made from it. This has placed unsustainable pressure on supply sources that previously only suffice the local use. Although local farmers are benefiting from price increases, the types of commercial relationships they arrange with international buyers might not be to their long-term advantage. The unregulated access to kava is resulting in the collection of immature kava, thus jeopardizing the quality of the medicinal product and depleting the resource base. Over exploitation retards the value of traditional medicines and knowledge that goes with it.

The scope of Traditional Knowledge protecting in India

The protection of traditional knowledge in India is a priority in both public and private sectors as shown by the summarized scope bellow;

Protection by the Constitution of India
Integration of the indigenous knowledge system in the mainstream health care
Documentation of indigenous knowledge
Sharing benefits for using IK
National Legislation protecting IK
Sui generis models for protecting IK

In India, the testing of traditional medicines has not been subjected to the Western methods. The Shastric (ancient Indian) system of testing and validation is different from the empirical, western method of validation of western science but is at least, if not more scientifically valid. The nuances of the preparation of herbal drugs are complex and the method of treatment is individually calibrated. The indigenous system of medicines in countries like India, China and others in Asia, is far more sophisticated than most cases of allopathic treatments.

Conclusion

Any efforts directed at protection of traditional knowledge will have to be mindful of the manifestations of intellectual property at national jurisdictions, regional (e.g. SADC, SACU and AU) as well as the international positions (e.g. WIPO, TRIPS and WTO).With proper domestic and international protection mechanisms traditional knowledge can become a niche and source of revenue for the least developed and developing countries.

References

Dutfield and Posey (1996): Beyond Intellectual Property, International Development Research Centre Ottawa
Graham Dutfield (1999): Protecting and Revitalizing Traditional Ecological Knowledge; Intellectual Property rights and community Knowledge Database in India. Perspectives on Intellectual Property. London: Sweet and Maxwell.
Graham Dutfield (2000): Intellectual Property Rights, Trade and Biodiversity; Seeds and Plant varieties. London .Earth scan Publication Ltd
Hoffman B.T. (2006): Art and Culture Heritage, law, policy and practice: Cambridge University Press
Mugabe John: Intellectual Property Protection and Traditional Knowledge: An Exploration in International Policy Discourse, available at the African Centre for Technological studies. Nairobi.Kenya
The Protection of Indigenous Traditional Knowledge through the Intellectual Property System and Intellectual Property Law Amendment Bill (2008) Available at www.thedti.gov.za

Footnotes

Hereinafter called WIPO

Hereinafter United Nations Educational Scientific Cultural Organization, World Intellectual Property Organisation, World Trade Organisation, United Nations Environment Programme and United Nations Conference on Trade and Development.
Hereinafter called TRIPs Agreement
Suman Sahai: Intellectual and cultural property rights of indigenous people in Asia: An outline
B.T. Hoffman: Art and Culture Heritage, law, policy and practice: Cambridge University Press:2006
The Policy and the Bill can be accessed on www.thedti.gov.za
This public consultation was held on the 5th of June at the North West University (Mafikeng Campus).
Republic of Malawi Constitution Act No. 20 of 1994.
S. 26 of the constitution.
The right to culture is protected by a number of international instruments, for example Article 17 (2) of the African Charter.
Act of 1902
Section 24
This is an experience that can be shared by traditional communities of regions bordering South Africa, Mozambique and Zimbabwe forming the transnational park. Similar experiences can be drawn from East Africa where the Masai and Mara communities who have been absorbed into the famous Serengeti and Ngorongoro national parks.
In South Africa discontent with developments like these have resulted in communities strongly opposing their government and traditional leadership for allowing the commissioning of the projects. A community in Bizana, in the Eastern Cape brutally killed their own traditional Chief for supporting an Australian mining company that was about to start a mining project on disputed tribal land.
Parallels can be drawn from the San communities of South Africa’s use of the Hudia plant as discussed earlier in this paper.

KM, Emerging Technologies and Innovative Schemes

Subversion and Rationalization of Knowledge Systems for Revealing Modernity in Africa

KMAadmin — Mon, 07 Sep 2009 05:26:31 -0600

Author: Jacques L. Hamel (1) UNECA, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia

Summary: The paper provides a speculative reflection on the power of modern science, technology, innovation (STI) and knowledge systems for revealing some distinctive style of modernity in Africa. The focus is on uncovering the necessary mental or intellectual costumes required for the modernization of STI systems as the backbones of modernity through a ‘Strategy of Subversion and Rationalization’. This modernization process is essentially the passage from close, self-confirming, faith-based, conventional or customary knowledge systems to essentially evidence-based, scientifically-established and technically-proven knowledge systems. In these systems scientific knowledge is construed as a theory of the real and as a technology of truth and understood as the epistemological foundation of any vision of an idiosyncratic form of Afro-modernity. The scientific method purges Abrahamic and Shamanic worldviews of non-scientific constituents and opens a path from the pre-modern, totemic, enchanted, patriarchal and over-religious worldviews and mindsets to the more secular, rational, liberal, mechanical, enlightened and scientific worldviews and mindsets of modernity. This paradigmatic shift requires championing the tyranny of the scientific method and the rule of technique as well as promoting decisive scientific arbitrations, increased technical mediations and a redefinition of STI’s relationships with religious, cultural, social and economic life. The necessary capacities for achieving this shift toward more modern scientific and technical knowledge orders are grouped into eight areas.

Capacities to Formulate Effective Visions and Strategies
Capacities to Create a Conducive / Enabling Climate
Capacities to Strengthen Ownership, Leadership and Commitment
Capacities to Design Effective Policy Instruments, Institutions and Systems
Capacities to Forge Partnerships, Alliances, Relationships
Capacities to Advance Regional Cooperation and Integration
Capacities to Double Funding and Investment in STI Programmes and Activities
Capacities to foster Knowledge Societies / Economies /Management
Conclusion: Capable Paradigms, Worldviews, Mindsets and Practices for the Modernization of Traditional Knowledge Systems

Introduction

Whatever theories of knowledge (Audi, 1998), of science (Kuhn, 1962), of modernity (Heller, 1999) and development (Preston, 1996) one embraces, the essence of the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) cannot be met and there is no access to an Afro-modernity of any kind without the rigorous exploitation and use of modern science, technology, innovation and knowledge. Effective STI systems drive countries forward along the development ladder and along the transition to modernity. Halving poverty and hunger – the essence of MDGs – cannot be achieved without upgrading and modernizing STI systems in the African region. It cannot be achieved without new visions, new paradigms and new strategies. This is what this paper is about.

To be sure many African countries are making remarkable progress in STI in spite of meager budgetary resources and enormous cultural, social, economic and political constraints. The progress is real and encouraging, even if government’ pledges are not fulfilled. But much of the region has been historically incapable of fully exploiting the power of STI for its development. Scientific and technical capacities remain low, with relatively few researchers, scientists, engineers, doctors, innovators, publishers and patentees per capita. This low capacity is well documented and is beyond dispute (with RSA a particular case).

Meeting MDGs and uncovering some variety or brand of Afro-modernity requires specific strategies and related capacities that are presently lacking. It requires strategic capacities to carry out uphill struggles and expend considerable efforts ‘simultaneously’ on an extensive range of battlefronts or battlegrounds. These capacities are grouped below into eight areas.

The first area focuses on effective visions and strategies and on building or strengthening the necessary broad subversion and rationalization capacities to meet the spirit of MDGs and to uncover a modern Africa. These call for assembling related basic, critical thinking, policy-making, adaptation, absorption, innovation and management capacities.
The second area concerns the strengthening of capacities to put in place a conducive or enabling climate for the modernization of STI systems, stressing a Renaissance or a revival perspective, faith in instrumental rationality, intellectual vigor, equal opportunities, true or factual knowledge and modern-day mythologies. The enabling climate should make possible the overall subversion and rationalization of pre-modern worldviews and long-established STI systems.
The third area highlights the importance of capacities in policy ownership, leadership and commitment, in line with the African STI policy narrative agreed at the level of Heads of State. The African development agenda has to be more in the hands of Africans and less dependent on foreign policy narratives, wisdom, ideologies and hand-outs.
The fourth area underlines the necessary capacities to develop the systemic and synergistic aspects of a set of two dozens typical STI institutions, constituting the major policy instruments of a ‘standard’ STI system. Here the popular modern innovation system narrative has to be deconstructed and re-contextualized for pre-modern cosmologies, cultures, societies and economies.
The fifth area underscores the capacities to forge partnerships and other forms of collaboration to advance STI systems. Nowadays no country – large or small – can advance an STI agenda alone. Every country needs to develop internal and external relationships, such as associations, linkages, twinnings, alliances and joint ventures.
The sixth area focuses on capacities to advance regional integration and the sharing of STI resources, expertise, institutional assets and markets. This is an area where African countries could and should be making more progress. Without more integration Africa may be too fractured, divided, fractioned and balkanized to access modernity.
The seventh area concentrates on capacities to fund and invest in STI programs and activities - an area historically rich in government or public promises and pledges but rather poor in follow-up and implementation. Public investments in STI have to double, as already agreed by African Heads of State, to jumpstart the transition to modernity. Private investments (FDI = $US 50 billion in 2007), on the other hand, should increase dramatically in the years ahead as they reveal resource-rich Africa as an immense energy reserve and fuel station universally coveted for powering the global technological engine.
The eighth area draws attention to meeting the emerging challenges of knowledge societies, economies, networks and management. Here there is a need to inject more ‘Enlightenment’ and scientific knowledge into African cosmologies, idioms, religions, beliefs and cultures in order to reveal the face of a distinctive Afro-modernity - hopefully not as eco-violent, disillusioned, melancholic and material as the North Atlantic mode of modernity. And there is a need to understand that knowledge is not additive but transformative. That means that some knowledge, acquired through acculturation and socialization, has to be unlearned, deleted, subtracted or deducted to make room for new knowledge. This may rank as the most important and costly blunder that African STI policymakers are making.

In conclusion African stakeholders are urged to build capacities to investigate, undermine and transform traditional or pre-modern knowledge systems with up to date scientific data, insights, practices, worldviews and mindsets. They are encouraged to re-imagine the African region as a modern one. For this it might be necessary to re-cosmologize, re-mythologize, ‘re-prophetize’, re-charlatanize and guide the evolution of the region toward some unique type of post-totemic, post-enchanted, post-phallocratic, post-shamanic, post-Abrahamic and post-colonial region.

Capacities to Formulate Effective Visions and Strategies

There is a need to strengthen capacities to develop and implement effective STI strategies, including subversion and rationalization strategies (promoted by this author). There is a crying need to fill the total lack of strategy behind MDGs. Various development strategies have been formulated around the idea of building capacities to lead, innovate, leapfrog, assimilate, follow, imitate, differentiated by sectors or areas. Other strategies have revolved around building capacities to exploit available technology, particularly new technologies, such as bio, agro, nano and digital. Other strategies have focused on knowledge management, on upgrading indigenous knowledge and technologies, on technology transfer and on research. But some important elements of any successful strategy for meeting MDGs and accessing modernity are still missing. A Strategy of Subversion and Rationalization of Traditional STI Systems is a complementary strategy addressing some neglected – if not completely ignored - aspects of STI for development. This strategy uses the vision of a reborn, renewed or reawakened Africa developed by a dozen African leaders since the 1960s and it also uses the vision of the Enlightenment philosophers and thinkers who designed the modernity project. In short, the strategy relies on modern STI to subvert and rationalize pre-modern mythologies, traditions, customs, ideologies, languages, religions, dogmas, credos, superstitions and cultures, which may hold back the march of STI in the African region.

Subversion Capacities

These refer to:

Capacities to reconstruct prior assumptions and reevaluate known facts, to challenge existing shared fundamental conjectures and overcome established community resistance
Capacities to question, overthrow or overturn systems of principles and convictions as well as forms of dominance, control and power incompatible with or not sustained by individuation, autonomy, subjectivity, self-determination, democratic rationality and other features of modernity
Capacities to challenge and transform un-enabling STI governance structures
Capacities to uproot totalizing, oppressive or terror structures that obstruct the way to modern manners of grasping and dealing with reality
Capacities to evolve more pragmatic, empirical, disillusioned, disenchanted and mechanical worldviews
Capacities to overcome pre-modern cosmological and ideological formations, whether home-grown or alien
Capacities to ‘de-privatize’ African States and privatize economies (including farming lands)

Rationalization capacities

These refer to:

Capacities to absorb the scientific method and be guided by instrumental reason
Capacities to rationally use STI to mathematize and channel the forces of nature for human purposes
Capacities to apply accurate calculation of technical means to achieve precise ends
Capacities to trim down or rationalize uncanny STI processes and absurd transaction costs (WB estimates that it takes an average of 68 days before exports are allowed to leave Angola, including 25 days to prepare documents, eight days to clear customs and another 24 days to get through port)
Capacities to comprehend scientific revolutions and move beyond Islam, Christianity and Witchcraft
Capacities to reorder traditional agriculture by cutting down on or by reordering mythological inputs: long periods of fasting (half the year in some African countries), numerous religious holidays, prayers for rain, no pork or wine or beer, sacrificial goats, holy water, women role as food purveyors, girls exclusive burdening role in fetching water and wood for cooking, children as fences, fear of ‘unnatural’ or ungodly GM crops, agricultural “slave” workers, etc.)

These subversion and rationalization capacities are required to unleash the full power of STI and reveal a unique form of modernity in the African region.

Capacities to Create a Conducive / Enabling Climate for STI

Open-minded stakeholders and scientists should strive to achieve a paradigmatic ‘renewal’ (ubuntu) requiring structural or fundamental reforms of the inner working of African societies. African STI policymakers seldom disagree on the fundamentals because they prefer to avoid proposing a coherent vision of Africa’s future, which would clearly show the inescapable pain of change and which would go beyond wishful thinking and pipe dreams. A workable strategy for the transformation of the foundations of African STI systems is still lacking. This strategy should achieve a shift toward scientific ways of observing, analyzing and knowing or toward science as the latest myth or the new religion of the time that can propel the continent into some original form of modernity.

STI policymakers need to understand that the emergence of some brand of distinctive modernity on the African continent goes much further than the simple ownership and display of modernity’s most visible technological products, tools, appliances, gadgets and gizmos. It is the hidden or unconscious background thinking that should be the object of close examination and challenge by African STI policymakers. In this regard they could climb on the shoulders of the great Enlightenment philosophers, thinkers, fighters and scientists of the 17th and 18th centuries (Descartes, Bacon, Voltaire, Kant …) who designed the modernity project with the concern for plain instrumental rationality at its core.

Policy-makers and strategists should encourage essential modernization processes, which would open the way to STI development and progress, such as autonomization, individuation, demystification, feminization (less patriarchal forms), democratization, liberalization, laicization, trans-nationalization, systematization, differentiation, technocratization and humanization processes. But they should also keep in mind that scientific illumination, technical action and modernity offer only a partial escape from the human condition.

Stakeholders should appreciate that mindsets, thinking and ideas are more essential than money or technologies or political promises, etc., in shaping the evolution of STI. Indeed, “The world we have created is the product of our thinking – it cannot be changed without changing our thinking” (Einstein). They should also realize that Africa has no other choice than to go through the pain of having to abandon some highly cherished received ideas, keeping in mind that “Ideas are the most painful things in the world” (Galbraith).

There is a need to engage true scientists and STI communities in public understanding of modern thinking and modern STI and there is a need to cultivate a greater awareness of the role and power of thinking and STI in development. Science is not only a popular buzzword and not only a stock of knowledge but above all a technique and method of thinking (calculative / essential / perspectival…) and it cuts like razor blades as it destroys traditional systems of customary bodies of beliefs. It is essentially an atheistic venture or undertaking built on a rejection of religious authority and supernatural or ‘divine’ causes or explanations necessarily giving rise to more laicized, disenchanted and enlightened societies than long-established over-religious or over-shamanized African ones. In modernity faith-guided knowledge systems do not force nature into fixed old-fashioned boxes.

In order for STI to fully operate on many African societies it is necessary to strip current worldviews of shamanic mysticism or magic, providential or divine intrusions, amazing archangels, absurd limbos, far-fetched miracles, occult forces and charlatan tactics, pretenses, frauds and deceptions. Modernity is in actual fact accessed through scientific rationalization and instrumental rationality. In this perspective imported Evangelical and Qur’anic models of reality, although of relatively recent human construction and bearer of positive civilizational values, lack decisive values for accessing modernity, such as democratic governance; the full utilization of feminine talents and aptitudes; affection and care for nature; a concern for the future (down here); superiority of scientific methods and hypotheses over ‘gaseous’ prophetic knowledge; a strong focus on life before death; and a less fatalistic attitude toward the lifeworld and poverty. Ancient sacred religious texts and documents - not exactly hotsprings of fresh worldviews - may constitute virtual owner's manuals for one’s life, especially for Africans-of-one-book, which under certain conditions are not conducive to paradigmatic innovation and to a swift transition to modernity. Evangelical, Qur’anic and Shamanic models of reality are traditional or pre-modern social constructions far from or quite different from modern scientific constructions of reality. From time to time our responses to aging or bogus realities should be one of denial, defiance or rebellion. “Sometimes the appropriate response to reality is to go insane” (Philip K. Dick).

Euro-modernity, in addition to overturning the kings’ power, mostly came as a reaction, through subversive conflicts, wars and revolutions, against the autocracy, abuse of power, exploitation, repression, colonialism, cruelty, misogynism and obscurantism of European medieval Christian churches. Islam, on the other hand, has been better in some respects than Christianity as regard science since it is less ridden of shocking miracles and outrageous tales that are contrary to common sense and to the known laws of physics and nature. The immense contribution of Islam to science in medieval time is well documented and beyond disagreements. But modernization of these pre-modern mythologies would bechallenging, if not suicidal, to the culture of salvation, of subjugation and of non-questioning (faith-predetermined beliefs) of both Islamic and Christian Africa. A culture of censure and contempt for science is not in line with the autonomous modern inquisitive subject. It is not in line with science as a way of thinking (Carl Sagan), as a method (Descarte), as a culture (UNESCO) and with modernity’s inbuilt worldviews and mindsets. In this regard facts speak for themselves: the contribution of sub-Saharan Africa to modern science in terms of scientific publications, patents, tech licensing, tech-intensive exports, investments in tech, and so on, remains stuck marginally at less than 1% of world total. Only a paradigms shift can fundamentally turn this situation around.

STI policy-makers could be more active in advocating a science-based knowledge order (Latour, 1987). Concretely this implies prioritizing (non-fixed) scientific knowledge and theories over Holy Scriptures, revelations, divinations and fantasies. It implies evolving more worldly / post-charmed societies. It implies reversing the current trends of building many times more churches and mosques than tech or research centers (about 100 times more in some African countries). It implies scrutinizing the conjectures, postulations and standpoints of Imperial Islam, Constantinian Christianity and ‘Magical Witchcraft’ in relation to a laicized, demystified and disenchanted modernity. It implies sacralizing science, the scientific method and scientific knowledge.

Capacities to Design Effective Policy Instruments, Institutions and Systems

There is an abundant literature on STI systems and system analysis but the main thrust of the narrative needs to be de-contextualized and re-constructed for African societies, weighed down by pre-modern ways of apprehending and operating on reality. Policy-makers should aim at increasing the general performance and integration of STI systems and subsystems. These are typically made up of a set of standard institutions, comprising among others: 1- Ministry or Commission or Council for STI policymaking; 2- STI Budget; 3- STI Funds; 4- Taxation; 5-Subsidies; 6-Scholarships; 7- Research Grants; 8- Venture Capital; 9- Centers of Excellence; 10- Incubators and Tech Parks; 11- IP; 12- Standards; 13- R&D; 14- Support; 15- Databases and Information; 16- Academies; 17- Professional / Learned Societies; 18- Parliamentary Committees; 19- Recognitions, Prizes and Rewards; 20- Interdepartmental Forums; 21- Chief Science Advisors; 22- Conferences and Seminars; 23- Science Clubs; 24- Science Days and Open Doors; 25- Extension, 26- Radio Tutorials.

Capacities to Forge Valuable Partnerships, Alliances and Relationships

Policy makers should forge useful Public-Private Partnerships (PPP), Government-University-Industry Partnerships and North-South and South-South Partnerships. They should nurture bilateral cooperation and support collaborative research to benefit from international or multilateral STI organizations. They should implement international agreements in STI, twin STI organizations, muster involvement of youth, mobilize private sector and rally the Diaspora. They should enlist NGOs engaged in STI, participate in relevant and promising IGOs activities and programmes, favor clusters of enterprises around industrial innovative leaders and liaise with RSA’s strengths in STI.

Capacities to Advance Regional and Sub-Regional Cooperation and Integration

African countries should work more closely with AU-NEPAD/ST and AMCOST. They should expand subregional and regional ‘teamwork’ (no country has the resources to do it single-handedly); share regional scientific and technological facilities (metrology, etc...); guarantee free movement of scientists and tech entrepreneurs across the region; and support regional initiatives (regional meetings, regional networks, regional forums). They should define common positions on regional and international policies; develop potentialities, specializations and complementarities at subregional and regional levels; carry out joint exhibitions and set up shared demonstration units; and conduct regional and subregional STI studies. They should strengthen the STI components of regional and subregional organizations, institutions and associations (such as ECOWAS, PTA, COMESA, SADC, etc.); be more active in emerging regional and subregional STI networks (ATPS, AAS, Magtech, Incubators and Parks, etc.) and consider paid memberships and active participation in regional centers and projects (ARCT, ARCEDEM, OAPI-ARIPO, ARSO …).

Capacities to Fund and Invest in STI Programmes and Activities

There is a need to double funding across the board for STI programmes and activities. This need is recognized by the highest authorities and is related to a wide range of funding instruments, means and objectives, such as the now famous 1% of GDP for R&D (long history of decisions, pledges and deceptions); national budget for STI infrastructures, institutions, training…; FDI; micro-credit; venture capital; licensing; fiscal incentives; donors and foundations; national and regional STI funds (recent AMCOST-instituted and AfDB administered fund); financial assistance to tech-based micro-enterprises; research allowances; fellowships; and open source software / open access info and knowledge.

Capacities to Meet the Challenges of Knowledge Societies / Economies / Management

Capacities to assess and upgrade knowledge in the African region must be strengthened considerably to meet the daunting challenges of knowledge societies and economies. To begin with, knowledge in Africa is somewhat:

Tacit, orally-transmitted, symbolic, figurative, local, rural
Fractured (Islam / Christian divide), compartmented (by ethnicity), balkanized (by six colonizing powers), fragmented (+ 1000 idioms and worldviews) and atomized (not part of any advanced knowledge networks)
‘Unscientific’ (disregarding scientific revolutions), mythologized (with indigenous and foreign superstitions), de-contextualized (uprooted and transplanted from more technologically-advanced areas), ‘canned’ (ready-made and pre-packaged), monopolized (non-sharing knowledge practices and ethos) and unprotected (except by diversion tactics)
Underused (scientists as taxi drivers), misappropriated (by power hungry sources), under or mis-professionalized (shamanic knowledge) and misapplied (ecocidal)
Eroded (extinct or dying languages and knowledge), drained (brains seeking greener pasture), rarely rented (against royalty payments), and too often plagued with spirituo-, mystico-, magico-, Euro- and phallo-centricity.

The ability of a worker, a firm, a country or a region to assess a given stock of knowledge such as African and modern knowledge, sort it, filter it, assimilate it and apply it to commercial or developmental ends is critical for any type of development and for accessing modernity. It is critical for unlearning / relearning and for the acquisition of key modern knowledge and competencies. It is critical for entering into the 21st century global knowledge society (Hamel, 2005). It is critical for deconstructing a pre-modern reality acquired through acculturation and socialization and it is critical for learning a new version of reality: “The illiterate of the 21st century will not be those who cannot read and write but those who cannot learn, unlearn and relearn” (A. Toffler).

Policymakers should emphasize the application of public domain knowledge and technologies (World Economic Forum, 2003) and adopt strategies that make the most of the latest technical knowledge and new technological regime (ICTs, bio, eco, agro …). They should recognize the value of indigenous knowledge, technologies and solutions, adopt green technologies and espouse the sustainable development paradigm. They should also put in place a monitoring system for measuring knowledge societies / economies (indicators, statistics, benchmarks, polls, studies…). In this regard African countries should support an AU initiative designed to measure the advancement of STI systems.

Conclusion: Capable Paradigms, Worldviews, Mindsets and Practices for the Modernization of Traditional Knowledge Systems and for Revealing a Typical Afro-Modernity

It is important to understand the reasons for the relative failure of Nyerre’s Ujamaa, Mobutu’s Authenticité, Sengor’s Négritude, Nkruma’s Conciencism, Kenyata’s Harambee, Wade’s Omega, Bouteflika’s Ennahda Movement, Mbeki’s ‘Call to Rebellion’ - let alone the vision of the Commission for Africa and a host of other appeals for an African ‘Renaissance’ (African Century, etc.). Perhaps there is some truth in the idea that “A problem cannot be solved with the mindset that created it” (Einstein).

Modernity in Africa will never be uncovered with the manipulation of economic variables alone, including external financial assistance, but it will certainly necessitate sound economic policies and strategies. Much of the development discourse in Africa revolves around economics, finance and money but modernity, in addition to being a technology-driven economic process, is essentially a cultural and scientific process, with the scientific technique and tradition at its center.

The scientific method provides tools for resisting ‘intellectual domestication’ and for embracing more modern or post-modern mythologies (Lyotard, 1991). A majority of Africans (80%) swears by or are ruled by Abrahamic mythologies and statistics show that less than 1 in 100 Africans escapes the Islamic or Christian system of beliefs he or she is born in. That clearly shows the strong appeal, fascination, addiction, dependence and the irresistible charm of these two great pre-modern religious solitudes. The scientific method provides a way out of this blind lottery and of this medieval intellectual trapping. Could subversive scientism be the new ‘religion’ of the time that could bridge some century-old divides in the African region and that could at last transform a traditional reality into a modern one?

There is a need to engineer a fundamental shift from Islamism, Christianism and Shamanism / Animism toward Scientism and Technologism. There is a need to engineer a transition from self-confirming systems of medieval thinking, superstitions and prejudices to modern scientific worldviews and empirical knowledge systems.

There is a need to be aware that science, technology and society are co-emerging, co-evolutive and mutually constitutive of each other and to be aware of the seduction of triumphant techno-scientific dogmas (Winner, 1977), which may lead to the devastation, excesses, wastefulness and pathologies of the post-industrial consumerist cultures of modernity. Perhaps STI policy makers should support the creation in each African country of free-thinking think-tanks to reflect on and promote an Afro-modernity essentially based on holding fast to the scientific method, as a new dogma, and on adopting scientific knowledge, which would provide an increasingly detailed and refined understanding of nature, the world and Africans in it. But it is also important to resist worshiping science and technology as a new God or a new Savior and not to let science and technology unduly monopolize African destinies.

A renewed narrative is needed, indulging less on minor variations around the status quo, to address pressing issues related to cosmological revolutions, technological effervescence, globalization, urbanization, energy crises, food shortages, environmental degradations, intercontinental competition and epidemics. It is also needed for the integration of science and technology in wider agricultural, industrial, budgetary, trade, social and educational policies.

New knowledge orders and new paradigms do not come effortlessly and without problems because very few free-thinking scientists have the strength, the courage, the moral fiber and the guts to challenge established truths, because current knowledge orders are considered sacred whereas any criticism is considered blasphemous or politically incorrect, because existing entrenched paradigms have to be displaced or replaced by new, disturbing and much less magnetic ones and because “the competition between paradigms is not the sort of battle that can be resolved by proof” (Thomas Kuhn). In the end the competition between rival paradigms comes down to a choice between fundamentally incompatible worldviews and modes of cultural, social and economic life.

There is a need to better appreciate science as a mode of subversive thinking, as a means of achieving the systematic destruction of conventional / medieval / pre-modern realities and as a way to reconstruct / modernize / re-order realities from new fundamentals and from new perspectives. Accordingly, African stakeholders are advised to build various capacities, as discussed in this paper, to probe, subvert and rationalize traditional or pre-modern knowledge systems with contemporary scientific facts, understandings, worldviews, mindsets and practices. They are advised to spare no effort in order to re-cosmologize, re-mythologize, ‘re-prophetize’, re-charlatanize and re-direct the evolution of the African reality toward some original form of post-totemic, post-enchanted, post-phallocratic, post-shamanic (magic- and witchcraft-free) and post-Abrahamic region, or toward an Islam-free and Christian-free scientifically-enlightened post-colony. For this evolution to materialize perhaps the first priority of policymakers could be to strengthen capacities to imagine a different and modern Africa and imagine means to attain it. This could be the most urgent and central task of African STI policymakers at the beginning of the 21st century.

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KM, Emerging Technologies and Innovative Schemes

Using African knowledge to promote positive outcomes in conflict situations

DriesVelt — Wed, 08 Jul 2009 03:43:43 -0600

An overview of conflict using African conflict resolution initiatives as a case study of KM for conflict resolution, revealed that the methods used by African institutions are not adequate to manage knowledge to eradicate the causes of conflict, provide early warning of conflict, or produce a synthetic knowledge product for wise decisions and successful actions. However, the literature alerted the researcher to a few important themes related to the research problem that will serve as focus for field research to learn additional KM principles and practices that could be applied to conflict resolution. The following themes were identified to investigate how knowledge of Africa should be managed to promote positive outcomes for Africa:

Theme 1: The Use of African Knowledge Systems to Prevent Conflict. The indigenous knowledge systems of Africa present KM practices that could be used for conflict prevention and learning. Especially the value system of Ubuntu provides valuable principles to prevent and resolve conflict.
Theme 2: The Finding of Collective Middle Ground (CMG) through KM. In Africa, the collective middle ground between civil society, trans-national organisations and state structures implies the merging of global knowledge with indigenous knowledge in a horizontal power relationship of equal sharing and control, in the spirit of Ubuntu, to find solutions to and prevent conflicts in Africa. Especially the way in which African knowledge systems and knowledge systems from outside the continent develop an equal complementary relationship to resolve conflict, is of vital importance.
Theme 3: A Universal Network of Collective KM. The desired KM situation in Africa is a sphere of interactive networks, chains and formal centres of knowledge linking intellectual and social capital of global, continental structures, regional structures, state structures, civil society, traditional communities (with special emphasis on the empowerment of historically marginalised communities), community organisations and public citizens. The network is founded on the relationship of horizontal power equilibrium in the spirit of an "universal Ubuntu" The purpose is to blend knowledge, to learn from the new blend of indigenous knowledge as a method of self-empowerment to prevent conflict and overcome the other challenges of Africa. This includes equal participation in the dynamic trans-national environment to empower and restore the power equilibrium and convergence between the north and the historically marginalised Africa, maintaining the choice to collaborate or not, especially in ventures such as conflict prevention.
Theme 4: Constraints to Collective KM. In Africa, the constraints of collective KM that need to be removed are continued reluctance to share because of exclusive objectives, the notion to protect because of distrust, the persisting vertical power-relationship between major powers and Africa, lack of objectivity in the merging of insights, time management, limitations on enabling capacity and communication (including language differences). These challenges need to be addressed by the intervention of visionary leadership, capable managers and innovative experts, facilitating the timely blending of all resources (human and physical) to prevent conflict or to support longer-term peace plans.
Theme 5: Policy Frameworks, Strategy, Plans and KM. Policy frameworks, strategies, and action plans must be in place to enable KM in both society and business. KM is part of long-term visions such as Ubuntu, the African Renaissance philosophy, medium-term sector strategies of NEPAD and trans-national business, and the operational and business plans of all entities. The management of knowledge for specific programmes is monitored with suitable instruments to ensure timely and wise decisions for action. Consciousness of human rights and security, and conflict prevention, which is the podium for all other ventures that may lead to an African Renaissance, persists. These frameworks must provide for the protection of all knowledge including indigenous knowledge. Instruments must be developed to ensure a realistic trade-off between the responsibility for sharing and protection, ensuring tangible compensation or advantages for African society for participation in collective KM.
Theme 6: Knowledge Production. The ideal knowledge product contains a synthesis of indigenous African knowledge (including information that is the result of tacit knowledge in oral or symbolic format that was processed to be tangible) and tangible knowledge inputs from as many other participants in the network that reflect all possible worldviews. The new holistic product must be subjected to interpretation by a panel of wise people and disseminated to effect timely and defendable decisions and actions to change a situation, e.g. a conflict situation.
Theme 7: A Culture of Learning. In Africa, intellectual capital is developed through a culture of learning and reconstructing the approach to education, which develops wise leaders, capable managers, and facilitators as well as expert knowledge workers who understands the interrelatedness and interdependence of knowledge systems. Relevant learning empowers and enhances trans-disciplinary insight, cultural understanding, knowledge awareness and positive perceptions about others. Intellectual capital includes people who can work together in multi-disciplinary groups, COPs and knowledge centres and the creative utilization of ICT and traditional methods for effective communication to enhance networking, including communication with centres situated on the periphery of states and in historically marginalised communities. People must be able to gather data, process it into explicit information, analyse it and jointly interpret knowledge.
This work is (c)opyright to Dr Dries Velthuizen African Wisdom site and is used with permission.
- KM for Conflict & Change Management

Mapungubwe: the first state in Southern Africa?

steved — Thu, 25 Jun 2009 03:05:58 -0600

PHYSICAL EVIDENCE

Located south of the Shashe and Limpopo rivers, the ruins of Mapumgubwe constitute a rich and important archaeological site (Fig 1). Its wealth of finely crafted physical artefacts attest to highly skilled pre-Shona craftsmen and implicates a society rich both in its culture and complexity. Of the graves excavated at the site three were found to contain bodies buried in the sitting position, indicating their royal status (www.metmuseum.org). Huffman (2008 a) suggests that the evidence at Mapungubwe indicates what would be the earliest known state in Southern Africa. Mapumgubwe enjoyed a short and difficult existence, flourishing briefly before being abandoned (ca. 1050-1270). Years of drought during the period in question proved itself to be a catalyst for social reorganisation, and tested the resilience and ingenuity of those at Mapungubwe. The environment had changed, pushing humans to their creative edge, where intelligence seeks new solutions to old problems. It is suggested that the society itself had to become complex in order to survive, exploiting an ancient trade economy to sustain itself. In this instance there is no definitive prime mover to describe the shift in cultures. Rather several critical factors such as long-distance trade, accumulation of wealth, ideological exchange and climatic change will be shown to influence cultural discourse in the region (Huffman 2008 b). In essence the spark of social complexity was born from a willingness to survive adversity, to engage with new solutions and behaviors, for mans intelligence to save his mortal self.

ARGUMENT

It will be shown that Mapungubwe is as of yet, the oldest known state in Southern Africa. In order to justify this argument several factors will be stressed. Firstly pre Mapungubwe societies will be examined in terms of their social organisation to establish the absence of a nation state. Primarily the case of K2 shall be used as a reference point to contrast against Mapungubwe, in terms of social ordering, political organisation and overall complexity. It is important to remember that this comparision will be used to illustrate the transition between the two cases, K2 being Mapungubwe's predecessor. This will demonstrate the evident cultural shift that qualifies Mapungubwe as the first known state in Southern Africa. Secondly the criteria of social complexity will be examined. This will be done to establish guidelines to describe conditions of social complexity, providing a checklist with which we may examine Mapungubwe as a state. Mapungubwe will be shown to be the earliest known state in Southern Africa, validating the most current archaeological research.
SOUTHERN AFRICAN CIVILISATIONS

PRE-MAPUNGUBWE

Iron Age archaeologists use trends in pottery to establish a chronological relationship between sites in terms of styles and cultural trends as expressed in ceramic design. This has been of particular use in identifying iron age Bantu migrations in the African interior (Huffman 1989: 1-10). The site known as K2 serves as a comparative predecessor to Mapungubwe, and is a convenient reference to contrast their respective belief systems and social organisation. Of all the Bantu language groups in Southern Africa Shona was the only language to have grown out of the middle Iron Age, whilst others were introduced from West Africa (Huffman 2007).

COSMOLOGY

Like other southern African settlements of the early and middle Iron Age, the structures at K2 were organised in what is referred to as the Central Cattle Pattern (CCP), prevalent among the early Sotho and Tswana peoples of the Middle Iron Age. The cattle enclosure or kraal at the center of these settlements alludes to the importance of livestock as a measure of wealth. Indeed ethnographic evidence both antiquated and current suggests the importance of livestock as a medium of exchange, famously demonstrated in practices such as lobola (Morris 2005: 3- 4). This central area was seen as a mens area, where male activities concerning livestock and meat were centralised, influencing social interactions around this measure of power. This land was considered to be ancestral, acting as a focal point of material wealth represented by cattle and grain bins. However it was also an area where power could be exercised through the courts (Huffman 2007). This would be done to settle disputes and maintain social order within the society. The area around the cattle kraal was considered to represent the female, containing walled kitchens belonging to the women.

ORGANISATION

These social relationships reflected in structural orientation thus formalise interactions between genders and provides physical evidence of social roles and gender relations in the Middle Iron Age (Whitehouse 1998: 223-224). The arrangement of structures around the enclosure were planned in accordance with cosmological beliefs. Such organisation stresses the relationship between cosmological forces, social relationships and cultural behaviour. The front area of the settlement represented the public, open and common area of the settlement. Conversely the back of the settlement represented the private, secluded, sacred and authority. The administration of such CCP societies were conducted by a head chief. The System of social organisation was patrilinial, implying that ones position in society was determined by their blood relation to the ruling chief (Shaw and Jameson 2002: 27-28). As such ones social position or importance in such a society was not a fixed 'state' but rather in flux, and could change with the appointment of a new chief. In order to fully understand the magnitude of the shift between K2 and Mapungubwe one must also engage with the tradition of rain making and its relationship to the arid conditions that ushered in the transitional period (Huffman 2008b).

RAIN MAKING

Traditionally rainmaking had been a professional vocation which required specialised training. famously the indigenous San or Bushman culture made use of arcane rain making techniques preceding the introduction of Bantu pastoralists into the South African interior. The piecing together of San beliefs and cultural practices has been limited to physical evidence -paintings in secluded rock shelters and outcrops- and contemporary ethnographic literature on surviving San groups in the Kalahari and Botswana (Lewis Williams 1978: 124-128). The importance of rainmaking for the middle Iron Age communities became important with the introduction of grain foods such as sorghum and millet. The practices of rain making were effectively outsourced to specially trained mystics and shaman who would be mediated by the chief. The introduction of grains such as Millet and Sorghum heralded an agricultural revolution among the iron age Bantu speaking people. The years of drought during the transitional period can be seen as a turning point both for social organisation and accounts for differences in rain making which later manifested itself at Mapungubwe. Hills, koppies and rocky outcrops had long since been used as special sites to conduct rain making rituals (Chippindale and Tacon 1998: 73-75). But it is the migration from K2 to a permanent rain making site (Mapungubwe) that indicates a radical shift in human behaviours, organisation and beliefs which gave rise to the first southern African state (Fig 2).

SOCIETY, COMPLEXITY AND MAPUNGUBWE

Complexity is a relative term, but definitions and distinctions between levels of complexity are based upon solid conditions. Primarily a key condition for the establishment of a complex society is the accumulation of a food surplus (Johnson and Earle 2000: 225). Because of this, agriculture is seen as a necessary precondition for the establishment of a city state. Karl Whittfogel famously drew the correlation between surplus and the control of water, defining the concept of 'Hydraulic Civilisations' (www.riseofthewest.com). He would of perhaps marveled at the at how Mapungubwe sought to secure its access to water; through divination. Realistically Mapungubwe's proximity to the Shashe and Limpopo rivers fits a well known trend for complex societies the world over -proximity to clean, flowing water, usually rivers. Physical evidence at the site also supports the presence of a food producing populous who would live separately from the elite and royalty who lived at Mapungubwe's apex.

The word state implies a fixedness or stability in political and social organisation, and ideology. The presence of a priestly class, and the legitimation of rule by hierarchy are seen to create solid social stratification, separating an elite superstructure from its base of subservient commoners and food producers. The presence of surplus allows for non-food producing citizens to become skilled artisans, craftsmen, metallurgists, specialists and merchants (Johnson and Earle 2000: 254-258).

“Anthropologist Robert Carneiro (1970) defines the state as an autonomous political unit, encompassing many communities within its territory and having a centralized government with the power to collect taxes, draft men for work or war, and decree and enforce laws... it is the notion of a centralized government that distinguishes the state from the decentralized type political organization. States represent highly complex organizational structures that function to control large societies... States represent a major departure from earlier kin-based societies” (www.mc.maricopa.edu).

In contrast to the patrilinial leadership at K2, Mapungubwe's social stratification is echoed in its architecture. The presence of decorative patterning and walls at Mapungubwe's rise indicate a section reserved for royalty and the elite(Fig 3). Given the dire circumstances posed by climate change the king took on a divine role as intermediary between the physical and the spirit. Among his duties as a messenger to Mwari (God) and the Ancestors, the King was also charged with rain making, his palace itself was built upon a rainmaking site at the hills rise (Mitchell 2002: 319-320). This constitutes sacred leadership, adding further evidence for Mapumgubwe adhering to factors necessary for a state to arise (hdl.handle.net).

The artefacts found at Mapungubwe contrast with those found at other middle Iron Age sites, testifying to the presence of skilled artisans. Most famous of these is the iconic golden Rhino recovered at the site (Fig 4). Both settlements had been involved with the ancient trade networks that crossed the south east of the continent and the Indian ocean (Grigorova et al. 1998: 99-100). But it is suggested that the commodities in which they traded were vastly different. Its forerunners would have relied heavily on trading unworked natural resources, such as iron, gold, hides and ivory. Mapungubwe would produce high quality aesthetic products in addition to basic commodities, demonstrating the presence of artisans. The presence of glass beads at both sites indicate a rare and auspicious form of commodity introduced through trade that had grown popular due to its novelty. Trading with far flung places such as Egypt, India, China and Indonesia opened new possibilities for the exchange of technology, beliefs and commodities. The contents of the royal graves found at Mapungubwe contained a wealth of grave goods, including ornate figurines and thousands of imported glass beads (Fig 5). This indicates a manifestation of class, political power and disproportionate allocation of wealth as a result of trade and tribute. The centralisation of goods, food and power under the ruling elite allowed for greater levels of complexity to be achieved.

CONCLUSION

Based on the physical evidence recovered from the site one may acknowledge that Mapungubwe is the oldest known state in Southern Africa. Its complex political organisation as reflected in its architecture surpasses that of previous kinship based chiefdoms and qualifies it as a state. Agriculture, food surplus and tribute allowed for a complex society to emerge. The presence of class divisions and hierarchical rule under kings and a royal elite further substantiates its apparent complexity. The physical evidence of the site itself and the artefacts recovered further attest to its grandeur and its importance as an economic trade hub. The presence of such finely crafted goods that originated at Mapungubwe indicate the presence of artisans and specialists. There is no doubt that Mapungubwe may be accurately qualified as the earliest known state in southern Africa. Although the city did not last long due to harsh droughts it remains important as a find and its influence on subsequent complex societies in the region, such as Great Zimbabwe. Years of drought during the period in question proved itself to be a catalyst for social reorganisation, and tested the resilience and ingenuity of those at Mapungubwe. The environment had changed, pushing humans to their creative edge. It is suggested that the society itself had to become complex in order to survive, exploiting an ancient trade economy to sustain itself.

APPENDIX A

REFERENCES

Aplay, A. 2001. Mapungubwe (ca. 1050–1270). (Consulted May 2009) www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/mapu/hd_mapu.htm
Chippindale, C. Tacon, P. 1998. The Archaeology of Rock-Art. Cambridge university Press. Pp. 73-75.
Grigorova, B. Smith, W. Stülpner, S. Tumilty, J. A. 1998. Fingerprinting of Gold Artefacts from Mapungubwe, Bosutswe and Thulamela. In Gold Bulletin 1998, 31(3) Pp. 99-100.
McEdward, M. 2007. Sacred Powers and Rituals of Transformation.(Consulted May 2009) http://hdl.handle.net/123456789/2083
Huffman, T 2007. Handbook to the Iron Age. University of Kwazulu Natal Press, Scotsdale.
Huffman, T. 2008. a. Mapungubwe and Great Zimbabwe: The origin and spread of social complexity in southern Africa. in Journal of Anthropological Anthropology
Volume 28, issue 1. March 2009. Pp. 37-54.
Huffman, T. 2008. b. Climate change during the Iron Age in the Shashe-Limpopo Basin, southern Africa. In Journal of Archaeological science. 35(7): July 2008. Pp.2032-2047.
Huffman, T. 1989. Iron Age Migrations. Witwatersrand University Press: Johannesburg. pp. 1-10.
Lewis-Williams, J.D 1978. Eland Hunting Rituals Among Northern And Southern San Groups: Striking similarities. In Africa 48(2): pp. 117-134.
Mitchell, P. 2002. The Archaeology of Southern Africa. Cambridge University Press. Pp 319-320.
Morris, M. 2005. Indigenous Knowledge Systems (IKS) and the teaching of history: case studies in a museum archaeology context. (Consulted May 2009). http://www.museumsnc.co.za/aboutus/depts/archaeology/pdf/IKS.pdf
Shaw, I. Jameson, R. 2002. A Dictionary of Archaeology. Eds. 6. Wiley-Blackwell. Pp 27 – 28.
Types of Societies (Consulted May 2009). http://www.mc.maricopa.edu/dept/d10/asb/anthro2003/glues/societyintro.ht...
Whitehouse, R. 1998. Gender in African Prehistory. In African Archaeological Review. 19(4): December 2002. Pp. 223-224.
Wittfogal on the hydraulic civilisation. (Consulted May 2009). http://www.riseofthewest.com/thinkers/wittfogel05.htm

Tourism Knowledge SIG

New Knowledge-based business models for Africa

storytelling — Wed, 17 Jun 2009 04:11:44 -0600

e-Knowledge markets are becoming recognised as “disruptive and discontinuous technology innovation” (Kaieteur Institute for KM 2005) which are changing the way which people manage their social networks, education, wealth and intellectual property assets. The possibility here is the exploitation of intellectual capital in real-time by a larger number of people. Some of the categories of these business models which have emerged include:

b2b (business-to-business) knowledge exchanges
community / social capital knowledge networks
e-education or e-learning exchanges
expert knowledge exchanges/ question and answer exchanges
intellectual capital/free-lance exchanges (human capital, talent, work, job, project, free agent or professional services exchanges )
intellectual property exchanges
knowledge auctions
knowledge banks (know-how banks)
knowledge grids
knowledge market & exchange - enabling technologies
knowledge stores or malls
knowledge vortexes - vertical market or industry specific knowledge markets
prediction/ futurology / idea markets
stock market or investment knowledge exchanges

The software necessary to drive such systems has become commonplace and can be implemented at very reasonable cost for even the smallest NGO or community organisation In addition, even entry level telephones now have 3G and web browsing capabilities allowing even greater access to electronic resources

African Knowledge-Based Businesses

There are literally limitless opportunities for the creation of Knowledge-based business in Africa. The following suggestions represent new categories which could be opened to the rest of the world as authentically African. Examples of Knowledge-Based business in additional to traditional educational institutions could include:

Knowledge Tourism – Strategically positioning knowledge offerings linked to local areas that invite exploration and experiencing in a variety of areas such as:
- Archaeology / Anthropology / History / Cultural experiences (Cultural villages, Dig sites, Stay overs with families etc.)
- Wildlife and Natural Resource Management Courses
- African Storytelling / oral traditions - Soekershof Mazes and botanical gardens Soekershof website
- Permaculture, Urban and Rural Agriculture and food production
- Student exchange programmes at School and University Level
- Participation in ancient rituals and rites - and example of this in South Africa are the Soekershof Mazes and botanical gardens Soekershof website
- Spiritual tourism to places of spiritual / geological and cultural significance
- Earthbuilding, traditional architecture and building methods
Carbon Offset agreements – to stimulate the growing of trees that provide food, work, shelter and regular income for local communities in exchange for Carbon Offset.
Waterway reclamation as part of carbon offset agreement to stimulate the cleaning of polluted waterways providing food, work, shelter and regular income for local communities in exchange for Carbon Offset see example of this at the Wet-Africa.org website
Phytochemistry – there is increasing interest in the molecules contained in some of Africa's indigenous plants by international Pharma companies. It is important that projects be established to:
- Identify and classify traditional uses of these plant and animal resources in such a way that the interests of local communities are protected and that they are suitably compensated should traditions of use lead to the isolation of useful molecules and practices.
- Grow and protect such natural resources and record the oral traditions connected to them.
- Ensure sustainable harvesting and management of such plants, in order to preserve the natural balance.

Indigenous Knowledge is part and parcel of the culture and history of any local community. Development agencies “need to learn from local communities to enrich the development process” (World Bank, 1998). Indigenous knowledge also affects the well-being of the majority of people in developing countries (Ngulube, 2002). Some 80% of the world’s population depend on indigenous knowledge to meet their medicinal needs and at least 50% rely on indigenous knowledge for food supply (Nyumba, 2006). Indigenous knowledge is indeed the cornerstone for building an own identity and ensuring coherence of social structures within communities.

Steve Banhegyi
steve@storytelling.co.za

Fireside Chat

Words of Knowledge - the Ukhamba (Calabash) Metaphor in Southern Africa

Qhakijane — Sun, 24 May 2009 09:07:09 -0600

The word ukhamba is a Zulu word for a huge clay pot. It is commonly used by all African cultures. In Zulu ukhamba consists of two words: ukukhama (which means to squeeze out or compress out as in milking a cow) + bamba (to hold in place so as to receive that which is squeezed out). This meaning clearly explains the metaphor of thinking hard (ukukhama) and receiving the treasures of thinking into human memory (ukubamba). Therefore ukhamba is a container, a reservoir, and a protector of that which is valuable and good for physical and spiritual nourishment. It is a central piece in the rite of social fellowship. The rite itself is treated with respect and studied deference.

As a spiritual concept ukhamba shares the same status as the female womb, which offers protection, sustenance and nurturing to the unborn child. Its contents have the potential of becoming something more greater than itself, like the unborn child who one day gets birthed and grows into an important leader. It may be likened to the eucharistic rite and those who share the contents of the ukhamba to others do so from a squatting or kneeling position.

In the strict Zulu ritual it is never placed on a table or coffee table. It is placed on the floor on a reed mat. The kneeling position symbolises its potency and strength and two messages are conveyed by the kneeling posture: first it is a sign of respect to the fellowship ritual taking place and secondly it is a sign of strength because kneeling symbolises humility in strength by not assuming a proud upright posture yet conserving one’s energy and reflexes to be used with deliberate control.

The place of the ukhamba is the centre. The gathering may sit is a semi-circle or full circle depending on the number of people present. People sit according to their sex and age group. It is then dispensed by a younger member of the gathering who approaches it kneeling and uses a smaller gourd umancitshana or udiyo (literally a stingy measure) and first tastes off a small amount before giving it over to the gathering. Quaffing and swallowing in one gulp are not encouraged. A simple small sip is preferable and the contents may only be finished by those who are wiser or older.

This tasting off is always done in a kneeling position and those who receive the gourd may drink from it from a kneeling or sitting position. The tasting off is euphemistically called ukukhipha ubuthi (the removal of poison) meaning that there is no malice or any hidden grudge in the ritual. More in the spirit of the participants of the holy eucharist making up with one another before partaking the Lord’s emblems.

It is a social offence to behave recklessly or disrespectfully during social drinking. Good public deportment and less talkativeness are the hallmarks of good breeding and manners. The young person must keep quite and speak only if addressed and listen attentively to the elders.

This ritual combines the four elements of Zulu mythology in a dynamic interactive process.

The reed is a very important emblem of Zulu myths. Zulus and many Africans believe that the first humans emerged from a primordial reed. This is not a literal fact but explains the mutual interdependence of human life and plant life. The hollow reed played a very pivotal role in the myths of Osiris, Moses and the Exodus of Jews from Egypt. The common thread to all myths is the emerging of all players in the stories into a better life. Hence Zulus emerge from the reeds. The Sotho’s do even better to validate this point, because when a child is born a reed is transfixed next the hut where the new born is kept. It is no wonder that Zulus eat from a reed mat (isithebe) , sleep on a reed mat, protect the Queen Mother’s hut with a stockade made of reeds; Swazi and Zulu maidens symbolise their virginity by carrying reeds to the Queen Mother’s hut in ceremony of First Fruits, and any gift is placed on a reed mat on the floor.

The clay pot is made out of earth. The earth symbolising the Eternal Mother and Womb from which all emerge and gets buried in order for others to emerge. The clay pot gives shape to its liquid contents and this means the shaping of all human knowledge by a lived life on earth. There is also another dimension of the earth which Zulus believe is necessary for human life: namely the earth is called umhlaba (literally that which stabs or brings about adversity). This resonates very well with Judeo-Christian concept of the Fallen Nature. Zulus conceive the earth as Umhlaba (the stabber) but are also mindful that healing and recovery is also brought about by herbs (therefore inhlaba (the Aloe plant) and man’s duty to strive against adversity and bring out the best of his ingenuity and creativity.

Water is the base substance which forms part of the contents of ukhamba. In Zulu water is amanzi (literally the heaviest substance in Zulu cosmology). If something is heavy or difficult in Zulu it is said inzima. Like all ancient languages Zulu is amenable to anagramatic analysis. Hence Nzima is the word manzi spelled backwards. This heaviness denoted by Manzi is not about weight but is about the magical cleansing properties of water in purification, preservation. While nzima makes heavy and difficult Manzi is the opposite but equal force which unmakes the heaviness by cleansing And restoring balance. This property of water resonates very well with the Hebraic concept of MEM (the water, the nursemaid, the cosmic mother). This has even prompted other researchers to conclude that Zulu is an ancient language because all ancient human languages denote water by the letter M and Zulu is the only surviving ancient language where the M-sound is preserved as a root sound to denote water.

The Fire is not explicitly seen here because it does not refer to physical Fire or the phlogiston but Fire is seen in the vivifying influence of the social gathering as seen in the sharing of beer and knowledge. This fire hides inside the watery beer but imparts a viva force to the drinkers of the beer. This living force stands for the pioneering spirit of all knowledge as a forward driven advancing and groundbreaking power that consolidates human knowledge and creates possibilities for knowing further and more.

The power of our knowledge systems lies within the power and original meaning of the words within our languages. I have demonstrated how the humble drinking of African beer within a Zulu culture can unlock the formidable latent power of African power. It is this power which resides within our subconscious that needs awakening so that it can help reserve the forgotten teachings of our Ancestors called Ubuntu. Ubuntu is more than humanity it is the sum total of all teachings and concepts that Unkulunkulu (not God), but Unkulunkulu, the first to emerge from the reed, as the First Human Prototype was entrusted with to teach those who follow.

Zulu culture, language & traditions

When the teachings were lost or forgotten - the function of the scapegoat

Qhakijane — Thu, 21 May 2009 06:32:25 -0600

When the Teachings were lost or forgotten, Zulus and many other Africans believe that recourse could be obtained by appealing directly to those who are on the other side of the Great Unknown particularly those with a stake in the continued well being of their descendants. This is a communication of last resort when all other avenues have been exhausted. The spirit of a goat is sent over to convey the S.O.S. message.

Why a goat? In every language in Africa a goat is called imbuzi. It is in Zulu, perhaps because of its ancient roots, that the meaning of this word has been preserved. Imbuzi means in Zulu “the one who goes to the spiritual realm to enquire on your behalf.”

In the book of Leviticus 16:20 -28 in the bible we are familiar with the concept of the scapegoat into whose ears the priest confesses the sins of the community and the other goat which according to the same scriptural verses, “videotapes” all the sins and good deeds of the sacrificing priest and sends it to the Unknown Beyond to God, in order to deliver the message of the community to God. By the way the scapegoat is released into the mountains, where the agility of the goat, climbs very high into the mountain mists where the evil spirit of AZAZEL resides.

The spirit of the goat does the same function that today is done by the ubiquitous SMS and email. It is specifically sent to enquire on behalf of those matters that our collective memory cannot resolve. Here are some hintful Zulu words:

buza- to ask
umbuzo – a question, a riddle
imbuzi – “the asker” the inquirer
-bu – a root word standing for crying aloud (ukububula), also for evil (ububi)
-zi – a root word for knowledge, wisdom, knowing (as in ukwazi to know) isazi (a wiseman)

Therefore imbuzi – one who is beset with evil or misfortune and whose condition makes him or her to wail aloud and who truly wants to know the reason thereof..

Needless to say, to see Africans as benighted ancestor worshippers is a great disservice to our spiritual heritage. In fact if we can place the time frame in which the goat sacrifices were done in Leviticus, we can immediately locate the time frame in which Africans including Zulus, were doing goat sacrifices. We are therefore dealing with an age that can safely be located into around 3000-2000 B.C.

Without sounding trite, there are practices and many of them that undermine the integrity of African and Zulu culture in particular. That a car is used for hijackings, for drunken driving, for committing crimes or for launching bomb, does not detract for the good moral reason why cars were invented (although the exploitation of fossil fuels has many serious negative consequences). African belief are no different; they are abused by both insiders and outsiders but that does not diminish their spiritual value. This article strives to expose that. Today, Christian beliefs are seen as being responsible for and justifying wars and torture around the world, it certainly does not detract from the fact that its founder stated unequivocally that “Love your enemies!” It is spiritual casuistry that interprets love as an act of smart bombs or false intelligence to destroy the other “enemy” people.

Colonialism and conquest brought foreign beliefs to us through the door of theft, deception, greed, racial oppression and exploitation. The western world is tired and is truly spiritually exhausted. It is time that Africans look deep into their own spiritual resources and save themselves. We are a nation of “leavers”, we leave our culture. we leave our countries, we leave our values, we leave our religions, and a person who leaves his or her Teachings becomes an Umloyi, umthakathi, a mfiti, a mrogi, unawares without consciously knowing to be doing so. We want to restore our humanity, our respect, our good behaviour, our good morals, because something in us has been distorted and destroyed. But we know it is not possible to go back, but it is possible to go forward and build on a solid foundation and build the Spiritual Kingdom of Anthu.

Until you understand the fundamental spiritual truths of why your people said they came down from Kapirimtiya, you must know that you are a being alienated against himself, a rebel and a true distortion of who you really are! Remember it is the lowly and simple numbering system from 1 to 10 that the marvels of modern science that you enjoy today are built upon. Until you also work hard at our most simple beliefs, who do you hope to attain the greatness that lies before you?

Zulu culture, language & traditions

The teachings of Unkulukulu

Qhakijane — Thu, 21 May 2009 06:21:10 -0600

The Teachings of Unkulunkulu became the oral wisdom of amaZulu and their system of elders were equipped with judgement in order to interpret this wisdom.

Unkulunkulu is not God. Missionaries in their zeal to plant a Christian cosmology into the African natives, took the word UNkulunkulu, and translated it into God. In Zulu cosmology nothing is as far from the truth. In modern South Africa, millions of black people regard UNkulunkulu as God. From a true and etymological point of view, Unkulunkulu is the Being who is created like ourselves who came out first. Another rendering of the name of this Being is umvelingqangi.

As a word umvelingqangi consists of the following concepts: vela – to appear qangi – for the very first time. Hence the One-who-appeared-for the–very-first-time. In Zulu cosmology Unkulunkulu came out first to prepare a living space for the human beings who are to follow him later. Unkulunkulu did not create the earth but he came out first to prepare a place for us. It is the same concept used by Jesus when He said He is going to heaven to prepare a place for His followers. The heaven was already created but in anticipation of his permanent guests he is going to prepare mansions (spiritual abodes not houses) so that the saints will have a living space.

So Unkulunkulu prepared the earth for human habitation. Unkulunkulu certainly was a very powerful being who had powers to subjugate and tame nature for human habitation. He later died, and went back to the Great Unknown Beyond our sensual perception.

In Zulu cosmology Unkulunkulu was the Great Teacher. Unkulunkulu taught people how to live in peace with the world and the earth. For this purpose the Teachings of Unkulunkulu were handed down as Traditions, they were an Oral Tradition and human beings (abantu) also continued with the work of handing down a Received Tradition to their descendants long after Unkulunkulu had left. These traditions covered many aspects of life: birth, puberty, marriage, death, war, illness, medicine, hunting, and many others. Some traditions were taught as Secret mysteries by those with specialized knowledge to those who were initiated especially medicine.

General teachings were the preserve of the elders. They presided on special cases and dealt with issues in the light of changed and new developments in the lives of the people. Over many years after the departure of Unkulunkulu, Zulus (read: Africans) always referred matters and cases of law to their elders for resolution and equitable handling.

Now over time the gist of these teachings came to be known as ubuntu. These were not book teachings residing in a library but these were practical livable teachings that were characterised by the spirit of Great Humanity. In any African language the hyperbole “he is not a muntu” means he/she is great distortionist of the behaviour expected of one who adheres to the teachings received from Unkulunkulu.

In any culture in sub-Saharan Africa if I am told that so-and-so is not a muntu, I immediately know that I am dealing with a perverse individual. They don’t need to spell out the details, and I will immediately know that here is a species of rebellious, defiant and immoral human being. Now ubuntu is the unwritten law, etched indelibly in the hearts of Africans. You cannot bribe me not to know that you don’t have ubuntu. This is the kind of knowledge that exist like a human conscience never controlled by men, to be used irresponsibly by men, but a TRUE knowledge of moral soundness a tribute to the Moral Pedagogic Expertise of Unkulunkulu.

There are many things that Africans must have done since the departure of Unkulunkulu and certainly one of them was that they were never ancestral worshippers. I don’t want to get entangled in dabates that will take away what I am trying to establish here. It is the Received Teachings from ancestors that Africans appeal to for personal or collective redemption in times of spiritual crisis.

Any act by an individual or group of people which undermined the Teachings of Ancestors as received from Unkulunkulu, that person was seen to be undermining the peace and prosperity of that individual, family or community. Therefore sin in an African sense was perceived to have an immediate adverse effect on the well being of the community. Such an act of subversion became known as ubuloyi, ukuthakatha, ifiti, and many other similar words which prove our communal ancestral descent.

Zulu culture, language & traditions