Indigenous Knowledge

The role of traditional and indigeneous knowledge and technology: the citizens engagement

storytelling — Tue, 06 Oct 2009 05:57:23 -0600

By Prof. Joseph O. Malo. KNAS and University of Nairobi

Abstract

The paper examines the role of traditional and indigenous knowledge and technology including the role of citizens in knowledge management of sustainable environment, health, water resources, education, habitat, disaster and emergency response, food security, clean energy etc.

The motivating factor is that most of the villages in developing countries are small and literally cut off from the rest of the world and hence under serviced. Social services particularly in health must therefore promote a combination of traditional and scientific approach. This calls for recognition of people who apply natural and traditional methods to sustain life.

One of the main bottle-neck in technology transfer is the current approach of the trickle-down effect rather than participatory bottom up approach where citizens are considered not just as partial beneficiaries but knowledgeable, active and centrally involved in both the upstream design and downstream delivery systems.

Background and Major Constraints

The key problem Africa is facing today is under-development that manifests itself in terms of abject poverty, diseases, ignorance and many other forms. It is regrettable to recognize and note that due to the severe but apparent lack of funds and other resources, many African counties have remained impoverished over the years. The weak fiscal status and the dim prospects for drastic economic improvement coupled with mismanagement, corruption in the continent also militate against any significant local support to alleviate the problems of under-development in the near future. From the experience of the industrialized countries it has become abundantly clear that for Africa to develop and survive this century, science, technology and innovation must take root in the continent to serve the people and improve productivity.

Global Environmental Change refers to a set of transformations of land, oceans and atmosphere driven by an interwoven system of socioeconomic and natural processes. Thus concurrent with the modern phenomena of globalization and to some extent as a consequence, human have begun to induce planetary-scale changes in earth’s life support systems.

Today human activities already match and sometimes exceed natural forces that regulate the earth systems. Current levels of carbon dioxide and methane are already well outside the range of natural variability over the years. Humans also now fix more nitrogen than nature dues. Furthermore particles emitted by human activities alter the energy balance of the planet as well as have adverse effects on human health.

It is however encouraging to note that the earth system is a very complex system with very many feedbacks to the extent that it can presumably still exhibit rapid global scale responses to changes in environmental conditions. However, a consequence of the interconnectedness of the coupled human environmental earth systems is that no region is independent of the rest of the world. For example the process at wok in the African region namely desertification and, biomass burning can have global consequences in the same way processes occurring in other regions can have influences in Africa such as particulate emissions from other continents affect rainfall patterns in Sub-Saharan Africa. Thus Global Environmental research in Africa requires not only Africa Scientists but also inputs from Scientists from outside the region. We are all interdependent.

It is therefore imperative that Global Warming and Climate Change that is real must be adequately addressed to bring sustainable development down to earth. To achieve this noble goal, traditional and indigeneous knowledge and technology including citizens engagement must be fully incorporated in the process of socio-economic development and more so in the developing world.

Science, Technology and Innovation Policy

It is today generally accepted that technology is “ the engine of economic growth” and technological innovation is indeed the principal currency of international competition. Thus technology plays a key role in attaining major goals in invigorating countries competitiveness in the global market place. For example the secondary applications of aerospace technology –spin-offs- span so broad a range of public needs and conveniences that is almost impossible to find an area of everyday life they have not improved and thus collectively represent a substantial dividend on the national investment in technology research.

A science and technology policy should therefore aim at improving the effectiveness of a national system of innovation, supporting public research and education, and sustaining the competitiveness of the business sector. So a major policy area should therefore focus on the promotion of innovation and investment, the diffusion of advanced technologies and creation of new firms. Thus a mechanism must be put in place for funding technological innovation by providing grants, low-interest loans and risk capital for supporting individual and cooperative research projects including downstream innovation that will mitigate the effects global warming and climate change.

Capacity Building

The highly interdisciplinary nature and mutuality of science in the development of new technology evolved mainly out of the capitalization on the solid foundation in science in the aspects of technology innovation, development and diffusion. Despite all the trailblazing advancements, our society is still experiencing an imbalance in improving literacy of citizens with the scientific technology development process, that has serious implications for public policy formulations, especially for developing countries.

Thus for Africa to enjoy the full benefit of Science and Technology they must be deemed critical to our effort to achieve economic well-being and indeed, social justice integrated into societal decision making structure and systematically supported by actions that nurture the nation’s capacities and indigenous talent/knowledge.

Since many of the urgent problems facing humanity today have potential solution derived from science and technology, it is vital that science and technology become part of the mainstream of education system. Thus courses that provide the basis of science and technology literacy and reasonable literacy and familiarity with scientific and technological culture, should be required at all levels and for all students including the many who do not intend to specialize in science and technology. This will create a science culture for a knowledge based society of the future.

Regarding Science Education we need to urgently introduce Inquiry-based Science Education (IBSE) at least from Pre- primary to primary school level. The conduct of science is also increasingly affected and indeed, driven by economic and other societal concerns .It is therefore necessary for the scientific community to be conscious of the concerns of the societies. Research agenda priorities derive not just from the wishes of scientists or their interest in certain problems, but from factors such as national needs, the availability of funding, access to tools of research and commercial prospects for deploying the resulting technologies such that almost always what get studied is decided by non-scientists.

Since the indigenous professionals generally understand their nation’s culture, they can easily communicate with it’s people. That is, they are uniquely placed to be disseminators of advanced knowledge and know-how to other critical local actors. This will greatly increase the likelihood that the new technologies will be well adapted to that society’s needs and cultures. The public can become sensitized on the important role of Science and Technology in society and their potential to help to solve urgent problems. A society that has become increasingly more dependent upon Science and Technology requires more professional scientists, more technically trained professionals and more citizens literate in science and technology who can make intelligent decisions on the increasing number questions of public policy with a technical component.

A nation that is involved in development, production or use of new technologies such as those deriving from biotechnology and bioengineering, should have the means to access and manage their benefits and risks. It is obvious that independent scientific advice improves decision making for public policies in terms of formulation, implementation, monitoring and evaluation. The effective government programmes can be greatly improved if inputs and independent review are provided by scientific, engineering and health experts. These are honest brokers who bridge the gap between what is technically possible and politically achievable. We know that many international deliberations from intellectual property rights to environmental and health regulations require governments to fully understand the science and technology premises that underlie the decisions they are negotiating. It is therefore vital that we create suitable mechanisms for providing important scientific and technological advice to government policy makers. That will also mitigate the effect of global warming and climate change.

Our governments must therefore ensure that indigeneous science and technology capacities are in place not only for adoption of new technology but also for helping in implementing public health, human safety and environmental guidelines or regulations that address potential side effects of new technologies. The possibilities of long term effects must be kept in mind when setting up such systems which must remain fully adaptable to rapid advances in scientific and engineering knowledge. It is therefore highly desirable that there be coordination of such efforts among nations to permit the sharing of the experiences and standardization of some of the risk assessments.

Traditional and Indigeneous Knowledge and Technology

There is no doubt that traditional and indigeneous knowledge and technology, particularly in the developing world, can enhance and indeed play decisive role in the management of sustainable environment, health, water resources, education, habitat, disaster and emergency response, food security, clean energy etc. In this paper, I will however focus only on health.

Plenty of our villages are small and literally cut off from the world and under-serviced. Most are subsistence farmers and indeed live below poverty line. The children are under and malnourished and at risk of preventable diseases.
We must expand social services for these people who are particularly disadvantaged in remote villages. The few government institutions that exist are far away and most are under equipped, including lack of staff. In any case they are often beyond the reach of those without money. Needless to point out that young doctors prefer working in towns. In addition to this, language barriers and cultural differences make communication even more difficult.

Social services particular in health, we must promote a combination of traditional and scientific methods during training of all cadres of medical personnel. The so called healers should first impart basic knowledge of scientific, natural and dental care including sexual and reproductive health.

We must urgently start supporting people who manufacture and use natural healing methods and recognize the potential of traditional medicine. As a first step, we should compile a handbook that will indicate disease patterns, diagnosis and cure including details of identification and the correct way to use medicinal plants.

We should then use media such as Radio and TV that feature interviews including public lectures that are informed and knowledge based. This programme could give information on symptoms and report on how to prevent and cure illnesses. Last but not least train two or more people in each village.

Citizen Engagement

It has become imperative that high- tech promotion should be of particular interest for developing countries because research in this areas has the general advantage that leads and require technological advancement in the frontier fields that will produce important spin-offs on the development of a country in which it is performed. Thus only knowledge based on local realities and environment can resolve the appropriateness of an imported technology to the community and turn them into new products and services that address national and local needs.

Citizen engagement is vital to ensure Science, Technology and Innovation respond to the challenges of international development agenda that includes Global Warming, Climate Change, Bioengineering and Biotechnology. There are many pathways to poverty reduction including social, cultural and institutional dimension that are key. This is so because Science, Technology and Innovation should be perceived as a part of a bottom-up participating process of development where citizen themselves are centre stage. Instead of citizen being viewed as passive beneficiaries of trickle-down development of technology transfer, they be considered as knowledgeable, active and centrally involved in both upstream choice and design of technologies and indeed their downstream delivery and regulation.

How about the following issues (1) What role can technologies play in future of people in developing world (2) How can poor people become more involved in shaping their own technological future (3) What makes Science and Technology to work for the poor (4) Which forces will be involved in shaping this (5) How can those who work in science and development assist and (6) How and where should Research and Development funds be directed

One of the main bottleneck of acceptance of new technologies currently is how risk and uncertainties arising from technological applications are regulated. In this connection the marginalized people should be involved in decision about innovation and technology. Thus it is time to adopt a new vision of citizenship that goes beyond public engagement with science encompassing, how science and technology agendas are framed, and the social purpose they serve and, who stands to gain or lose from them.

Conclusion

Thus advances in Science, Technology and Innovation (STI) should not neglect the poor people’s own priorities in trickle - down model since this approach will ignore poor people’s own perspective and concerns. For these technologies to provide well being for the citizens, innovation must be rooted in the local realities. Thus more participatory approach is needed where innovation are seen as part of broader system of governance and markets that extends from local to national , regional and international levels . No doubt this will increase access and indeed ownership for sustainability.

I have tried above to present historical perspective of the development of science and then not only to underscore but also to underpin policy issues and capacity building together with citizen engagement for sustainability in order to guarantee achieving both goals and the desired result. My conclusion is that it is vital to ensure well being of the society than so called wealth creation by providing the necessary infrastructure and an enabling environment. I have no doubt that Science, Technology and Innovation will make lasting contribution in these efforts to by engaging citizens and incorporating of traditional and indigeneous knowledge and technology.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Malo J. O., Physics and Industrial Development, 3rd Regional ANSTI Seminar in Physics, 5 – 7 August, Gaborone, Botswana
Malo J. O., Capacity building in Science and Technology :The African perspective, International Conference on Physics and Industrial Development- Bridging the Gap, 17- 19 January ,1994, New Delhi , India
Malo J. O., Physics in Africa World Congress of Physical Societies, 17- 22 September 2000
Malo J. O., Major constraints in Application of Science and Technology in National Development- The African Perspective, COPID 200, Durban, South Africa, 4-7 September 2000
Malo J. O., Physics in Contemporary World: The African Perspective: Third World Congress of Physical Societies, Berlin, Germany 15- 16 December 2000
ICSU, Report on New Genetics, Food and Agriculture: Scientific Discoveries – Societal Dilemmas, 2003
Inter Academy Council (IAC), Inventing a Better Future: A Strategy for Building Worldwide Capabilities in Science and Technology, January 2004
Prof. E. O. Odada, A Strategy for Global Environmental Change Research in Africa : Science Plan and Implementation Strategy, 2000 PASS Secretariat, Nairobi, Kenya.
Malo J. O., Technology Development and Citizen Engagement; Career Development in Bioengineering and Biotechnology, 2008, USNAS

KM & Governance

The management of knowledge: best practices learned from the people of the Great Lakes region of Africa

DriesVelt — Sun, 20 Sep 2009 07:13:55 -0600

Author: Dr Andreas Gerhardus (Dries) Velthuizen

Organizational Affiliation: Centre for African Renaissance Studies, University of South Africa (Academic Associate)

Contact Details: dries@africanwisdom.info - Mobile: +27834736478

ABSTRACT

The paper deals with the management of knowledge for conflict resolution and the innovation of Africa. After a brief discussion of the research methodology followed, feedback is provide on field studies conducted in from 2006 to 2008 in Northern Uganda, Rwanda and the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda (ICTR) in Arusha, Tanzania and in the DRC. As a result of the field study certain principles and practices were identified by which the challenges of Africa could be engaged. The author found five “realms” in which KM can take place and that traditional knowledge practices if merged with more modern KM practices provides a valuable framework for KM for conflict resolution and the innovation of Africa. Best practices that were identified include an intra-connected and collective knowledge production system and the production of tacit knowledge especially among the new generation or “youth”. Furthermore, the importance of intellectual capital in the form of value-driven leadership, competent managers, and expert knowledge workers and the activation of intervention into the continuous spiral of violent conflict, ultimately leading to the innovative transformation of African society, is discussed. Finally, some recommendations are offered as possible solutions for conflict resolution and the innovation of Africa.

INTRODUCTION

Today there is a need in Africa for knowledge for decision-making purposes. Information from official structures such as the African Union (AU), the structures of its member countries, trans-national organisations, business structures, civil society, and indigenous knowledge systems (IKS) should become usable knowledge. Furthermore, it is necessary for African structures to accommodate the perspectives of local communities, the content of IKS, and intellectual capital of society ('higher minds') to ensure understanding of the challenges, prompting active intervention to find solutions.

The question remains: How should African knowledge and knowledge in Africa be managed to resolve conflict and to ensure the innovation of the continent?

The specific aim of the paper therefore is to propose a solution for the management of knowledge, including indigenous knowledge, to achieve desired outcomes for Africa while promoting the “African Renaissance”. The crux of the paper is to present a knowledge management (KM) solution on how to accommodate the wisdom embedded in the indigenous knowledge systems, communities and 'higher minds' of Africa in decision-making and actions together with knowledge brought by the trans-national organisations in a collective middle ground to create a new holistic knowledge.

The paper is the outcome of an extensive literature study and research conducted in the Great lakes of Africa from 2006-2008. After a brief discussion of the research methodology that was followed in Northern Uganda, Rwanda and the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda (ICTR) in Arusha, Tanzania some good practices were identified for the innovation of Africa through the management of knowledge.

THE RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

Research was done by following a multi-disciplinary, inter-disciplinary and trans-disciplinary systems approach, using a qualitative research methodology on trans-national level.

A review of literature on the philosophy of knowledge, the theory of knowledge management, knowledge in Africa and African knowledge alerted the researcher of a few important themes:

The production of tangible collective knowledge of indigenous society by means of an intra-connected knowledge system.
The creation of tacit understanding by establishing a culture of learning towards a synthesis of knowledge and a holistic understanding for a new generation to develop and to find solutions for the innovation of Africa.
Intellectual capital in the form of value-driven leaders, capable managers and facilitators as well as expert knowledge workers.
The activation of intervention by means of knowledge-driven policy frameworks, strategies, and action plans to stop the cycle of violence that prevents the revival of Africa.
The knowledge-driven innovative transformation of the normative foundation of African society.

The Great Lakes region of Africa (with specific reference to the DRC, Uganda, and Rwanda), was chosen as the general universum of the study because of the number of unresolved or managed conflicts in the area, and intense knowledge management activities related to conflict resolution.

A pilot study was conducted by means of content analysis of empirical literature related to KM for conflict resolution in the Great lakes region as well as preliminary exploration by means of travelling in the DRC, Uganda and Rwanda to make observations and to identify key informers and focus groups for the study.

Consequently, samples within the following units of analysis were selected that meets the criteria for selection

The Traditional Acholi Conflict Resolution System in Uganda
The Gacaca Court System in Rwanda
The International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda in Arusha

The main investigation was conducted in these “samples” through:

Content analysis of literature available in East Africa and published by East Africans on indigenous conflict prevention methods.
Interpretative interaction with people involved in the selected cases during fieldwork in Kampala, Gulu, Kigali and the ICTR.
Qualitative semi-structured in-depth interviews with selected key informers (specialists, professionals, and members of the communities and organisations) focussing on KM activities related to the specific conflict management cases.

The result of this research is some important concepts that can be serve as best practices for the management of knowledge for the innovation of African society.

THE INTRA-CONNECTED AND COLLECTIVE KNOWLEDGE PRODUCTION SYSTEM

Research revealed a 'trans-dimensional KM paradigm’ that involves collective knowledge including knowledge claims from the African village (the traditional knowledge realm), the religions of the community (a religious knowledge realm), official structures (formal knowledge realm), judicial structures (judicial knowledge realm) and trans-national organisations involved in the community (global knowledge realm). Collectively these knowledge claims forms the indigenous knowledge of African society, when collective middle ground is found in the context of social capital of the community involved.

According to Dia (1996, 241), the first requirement for knowledge production is the need for a new participatory process that focuses on building convergences between formal and informal institutions, empowering beneficiaries and local communities. Reconciliation between indigenous groups and formal institutions brings together dominant societal values of indigenous cultures as well as technical and organisational ideologies supporting modern institutions. Convergence begins when both formal and indigenous recognise the need for sustained interaction. Renewing, informal institutions need to create relationships with adaptive formal ones, revolving around programmes and projects, releasing synergy between the interacting institutions and achieving institutional convergence.

Nabudere (2006a) concludes that nowadays business, communities and several non-academic settings, where groups of people from different disciplines and institutions come together, are centres of learning. Boundaries that used to exist between academic and non-academic learning is becoming blurred, as the ‘excluded middle’ is increasingly included. Policies must work towards a new convergence, which recognises that knowledge is necessary for production, and that other communities seek interlocking networks of economic and social relationships globally as Africa moves into a 'learning economy'.

The pilot study in the Great Lakes region disclosed the following knowledge management “realms” related to a collective and intra-connected knowledge production system.

The African Traditional Knowledge Realm. On this level the traditional knowledge of Africa, including the knowledge embedded in collective memory and articulated in African language narrative is accessed in a spirit of Ubuntu2 to gather data on how to prevent or resolve violent conflict.
The Indigenous Knowledge Realm. In this realm, the unique tacit or explicit normative knowledge and scientific/empirical knowledge claims embedded in the political, religious and traditional African society, including the universal knowledge claims that originate from outside Africa and that became indigenised in African society, is gathered and processed in a central point with new knowledge for decisions and actions as an output.
The Collective Knowledge Realm. This realm involves the finding of collective middle ground where the indigenous knowledge claims of Africa and the knowledge claims of entities outside Africa (sometimes represented by trans-national organisations such as multi-national corporations and the UN) complement each other equally in a formal and informal way, through the implementation of good KM practices.
The Social Capital Realm. In this realm social capital in the form of intricate trans-national and intra-societal networks of individuals and knowledge centres intra-act in a supportive dynamic trans-realm where knowledge is shared and renewed in a horizontal relationship, continuously seeking new synthesis and holistic perspective of the causes, development and consequences of conflict and opportunities to prevent or resolve it.

The new paradigm emerged that can be illustrated as follows:

The manifestation of the paradigm was found during field research in Gulu, Northern Uganda. It was found that the traditional system of the Acholi people enjoys an intra-connected relationship with broader society during which new knowledge is created. It was found that traditional knowledge is used extensively by organisations in Gulu to manage the consequences of internal conflict (with specific reference to the activities of the Lords Resistance Army during three decades of internal war). In contrast, it was found that an organisation such as the International Criminal Court (ICC) does not succeed in contributing to KM for conflict resolution in a similar way or with similar impact and the challenge remains in finding common ground between the indigenous society and the trans-national institution.

The observation in Uganda was confirmed during field research in Rwanda. It was found that the Gacaca court system3 allows for a structured way of maintaining an intra-connected relationship with broader society during which new knowledge is created. It also appeared sufficient common ground exist between the practices of Gacaca and the modern KM practices represented by the ICTR in Arusha4. However, it was found that traditional and indigenous knowledge inputs are only used by both systems as evidence, and do not result in production of sufficient knowledge for decision-making in contributing to KM for conflict resolution to such and extent that it would assist in the eradication of conflict.

Furthermore, it was found that the social networks and intellectual capital of Rwanda, together with a system based on traditional Gacaca practices, provides sufficient opportunity for peace and restorative justice. The challenge is in finding common ground not only between Gacaca and the ICTR, but also with actors in the global community in an equal and complementary fashion.

THE CREATION OF A NEW HOLISTIC UNDERSTANDING BY A NEW GENERATION

The research found that both tacit knowledge and tangible knowledge products, produced in knowledge centres created for that purpose as part of an indigenous knowledge system, could contribute to better understanding in the form of knowledge synthesis and holistic perspective, especially among the youth and an emerging new generation of leaders. In these centres knowledge production takes place through the processing of information (including indigenous knowledge) into tangible innovative knowledge products that provides early warning of conflict, lessons learned from conflict resolution initiatives and recommends specific solutions, as well as the creation of tacit understanding by means of skills development, formal courses, mentoring programs, coaching, counselling, and distance learning, including the use of information and communication technology (ICT) platforms to collaborate through the communication, storage and display of knowledge.

Nonaka (1998, 21) discussed the 'knowledge creating company' and proposed that the creation of new knowledge depends on tapping the subjective insights, intuitions and ideals of workers. He uses the example of 'holistic knowledge creation' as a tool for innovation in Japanese society. Garvin (1998) described the 'learning organisation' by saying that before people and companies can improve, they must first learn. People must be skilled at systematic problem solving, experimentation with new approaches, learning from experience and best practices, accompanied by quick and efficient transfer of knowledge through the whole organisation. Pelissier (2001) found that if the organisation is knowledge-based, it means that knowledge and business intelligence are competitive weapons in a borderless environment.

Gutto (2006, 306-320) argues that 'the primary purpose of education, formal or non-formal, is the development of interrelated and interdependent sets of human capacity to think, to know and to act by honing social consciousness or awareness, values and skills. This requires understanding of the interrelatedness and interdependence of knowledge systems, creative utilization of ICT, enhanced networking and distance learning.

According to Nabudere (2002b), African epistemology starts with the recognition that all knowledge is valid within its own cultural environment. Conditions must be created for communication and recognition of the contribution of each entity. This hermeneutic approach requires an African contribution that concurs with the needs of self-emancipation, while drawing on cultural heritage, taking into account new developments. Therefore tools must be developed to draw on the deeply embedded indigenous knowledge systems of Africa, including its practical knowledge, and build on it technical knowledge that can be of value in a global world.

These findings were reinforced by solutions proposed by ESCOM during a workshop on 17 and 18 February 2009 in Midrand, South Africa. Organisational learning should take place through mentoring programs, capturing of “lessons learned” and staff collaboration in communities of practice. Learning can be facilitated by “Grey Beard Mentors” (experienced people who already left the organisation) or by employees that will soon leave the organisation. Tools can be used to transfer best practices such as the design and development of courses, the use of case-study templates and collaborative technological platforms to do e-learning. The output should be to create understanding of the system by people on “grass-roots” or “coal-face” level.

During the pilot study in the DRC, Uganda and Rwanda the good practice of production of knowledge in knowledge centres in the form of early warning and foresight of the probability of incidents that might occur in the short term (such as genocide), or in the long-term, the probability of conflict in and among societies. Furthermore, it could deliver a more tacit knowledge product in the form of a person with a new vision of the future, learning new values, understanding of the causes and consequences of conflict and changed behavior, including managerial excellence and vocational skills.

During field studies, specific examples of these practices were found. Several centres of knowledge production and learning initiatives were found in the small town of Gulu. The traditional structures and culture of learning of the Acholi manifest in extensive social capital in local, regional and international context, nurtured by supportive organisations and individuals throughout the years of conflict. Coupled with the capacity to use modern ICT to disseminate knowledge to and receive knowledge from other centres, the social capital of the Acholi yields suitable conditions for knowledge production.

Observation and interviews on the Gacaca Court System in Rwanda revealed that epistemologically the procedures on village level are of value to create an understanding of the forces at play before and during the genocide. Especially when the intellectual capital of a jury as a form of community of practices is applied, an accurate view of actual events may emerge. Although not directly and immediately useful to eradicate ideologies such as racism and genocide, it may lead to a complete understanding of the underlying causes and consequences, an understanding that will be useful for actions to prevent similar events from recurring.

During the main study at the ICTR in Arusha it was found that involvement in the trans-national organisation means entering a culture of learning. The opportunity presents itself to African society to enhance professional and managerial competence, become multi-skilled and adaptable, and to learn from a culture that promotes managerial excellence, performance value-based learning, and the maintenance of standards required for service to others.

In 2007 and 2008, after ten-month long training projects under the auspices of the security sector reform initiative in the DRC it was concluded that value-based transfer of knowledge, following a trans-disciplinary (as opposed to specialisation) and multi-platform approach (training specialists but as part of a system) in a practical environment ensure lasting skills and capacity. The tacit outcomes of the training is a new generation of middle-level managers and specialists who understand the values of peace (as opposed to violence), self-emancipation (as opposed to domination), professional conduct (as opposed to corruption), justice (as opposed to impunity), national pride, trust, respect and the importance of becoming part of peaceful solutions in the region.

THE INTELLECTUAL CAPITAL OF AFRICA: VALUE-DRIVEN LEADERSHIP; COMPETENT MANAGERS AND EXPERT KNOWLEDGE WORKERS

During research in the Great Lakes region, it was found that intellectual capital in the form of value-driven leaders, competent managers and facilitators, expert knowledge workers (including ICT experts) work together in multi-cultural working groups or communities of practice to share worldviews and learn from each other. Together they form an intellectual capital pool of people with trans-disciplinary insight, holistic knowledge, cultural awareness and innovative thinking. The opportunities exist for the empowerment of Africans to participate equally as value-driven leaders in the production of new knowledge.

A recent study by the Department of Industrial Psychology, University of Stellenbosch (Du Toit, Engelbrecht and Pooven 2006) revealed that traditional African values, although in congruence with many universal ethical values, place more emphasis upon collectivism, collaboration, caring, dignity and respect. It is argued that these values should underlie a value-based leadership style to enhance team performance in modern organisations through better integration and understanding of a multi-cultural workforce and the management of diversity with a focus on teams.

In the ICTR it was found that value-driven leaders, competent managers and facilitators, expert knowledge workers representative of society (not only governments) are involved in joint working groups where they can participate in an equal relationship. Leadership is strongly value driven, especially concerning the universal values of justice, peace, respect and dignity. This environment creates an opportunity for Africans to participate and leadership role in modern trans-national institutions for not only the immediate purpose of seeking justice done and preventing further conflict, but also to exert positive African values such as self-emancipation and competitiveness toward a convergent relationship with the rest of the global community.

A further good practice that was found at the ICTR is the concept of an 'inter-disciplinary and representative knowledge pool' of intellectual capital consisting of productive leaders, managers and experts from within African society. Because KM supports the 'common cause', the identification of capable people from a knowledge pool is the ideal situation. The criteria for belonging to the pool include diversity in terms of geographical origin and the advancement of women. Specific expert skills like those of translators, security staff,' and base administrators' with multiple skills and inter-disciplinary ability, are needed. Leaders with an understanding of the system who are adaptable to a trans-national environment and innovative thinking must be in key positions. The ideal person should be an innovator with a will to meet targets.

It became evident that value-driven leadership, supported by a pool of capable managers and experts, is vital to activate innovative solutions to complex challenges facing Africa.

THE ACTIVATION OF INTERVENTION TO RESOLVE CONFLICT

One of the main conclusions of the research indicated that to activate intervention in conflict, knowledge-driven adjustment of policies, strategy and contingency planning are necessary to resolve conflict and to maintain peace. To this end collectiveness and the finding of common ground among conflicting parties as a first step towards peace and growth are vital.

One of the first steps towards the achievement of this objective was the 2004 AU Summit, which adopted a Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) between the AU and the Regional Economic Communities (RECs) on KM responsibilities. According to the MoU, RECs should maintain a database and transmit quarterly reports to the PSC of the AU. Regular networking must be ensured, including visits by officials charged with implementation and REC representatives must attend AU meetings. Focal points must be created for liaison between regional mechanisms and the mechanisms within the AU. A guideline that was given is that conflict situations on the continent should be monitored by gathering information based on specific indicators.
Perhaps the most important integrated project for creating a peaceful and secure environment for African development is the establishment of a Continental Early Warning System (CEWS) of the AU. According to the Protocol of the Peace and Security Council (PSC), timely information collected through a CEWS will be used by the Peace and Security Council on potential conflicts and threats to peace and security in Africa. The CEWS is linked to regional situation rooms. Decisions on the best course of action will be based on this intelligence, and should preventive diplomacy fail, peacekeepers may be deployed to prevent violence. (AU 2005).

Neuland & Venter (2005, 25) assert that policy measures of governments and governmental institutions to deal with conflict resolution in the NEPAD context should be complemented by a public peace process and a convergence of the roles of citizens, public organisations and NGOs with the role of government during conflict resolution. The causes of many conflicts are outside the reach of government-based diplomacy and the role of citizens and public organisations is crucial in building positive political relationships between people in conjunction with official peace processes, focussing on systematic dialogue among individuals, transformation to end violence and to build peace.

During field research in Gulu, it was found that the traditional justice system of the Acholi provides a valuable framework of KM practices that can be used for conflict resolution. The traditional initiative proved to be a knowledge driven process providing for the gathering of empirical data from the memory and narrative of the exact original observer or participant, and for context unique to the specific culture. It was found that traditional practices are reconcilable with modern KM practices, even to the point where the keepers of traditional knowledge can participate in modern collective knowledge activities where tangible knowledge is produced, lending a particular indigenous character to the knowledge product. Furthermore, it was found that traditional and indigenous knowledge inputs are used extensively by organisations in Gulu to produce a synthetic renewable knowledge because of intra-connectedness and convergence in a collective middle ground with the traditional community as part of broader Acholi society. It is especially in Gulu where the trend towards equal complementary nature of IKS and modern knowledge systems were discovered. The intra-action between the church leaders and traditional leaders can be considered as a good example of a traditional system that allows for extending traditional structures towards an intra-connected relationship with broader society during which new knowledge is created.

On the contrary, it was found that institutions such as the ICC and ICTR do not succeed in contributing to KM for conflict resolution to such and extent that it would assist in the eradication of conflict. The gathering of evidence to prosecute within a modern legal framework, serve mainly the prosecution strategies and corporate interests of the organisation and produces very little current knowledge that could be used for early-warning and planning purposes.

KNOWLEDGE-DRIVEN INNOVATION OF AFRICAN SOCIETY

During the field studies in the Great Lakes of Africa, it was found that it is in the realm of the African Renaissance where the totality of a holistic knowledge foundation serves to eradicate the causes and consequences of conflict. It was found that productive growth, competitiveness, self-emancipation, empowerment of the marginalised and restoring of equilibrium between African society and the global economy can only be attained through the innovative transformation of thinking away from negative values that drives conflict, to be replaced by a new thinking driven by values such as peace, freedom, and the spirit of Ubuntu.

The African Renaissance philosophy, which is about developing Africans and Africa, is a call for the rebirth, renewal, reinvention and repositioning of Africans and Africa in a globalizing world. The African Renaissance is seen as the rebirth of the continent after centuries of suppression, correcting negative images. Rebirth must be through rediscovery of Africa's past, reversing the downfall into chaos. It is about planning for the future based on a new knowledge framework accommodating the ideas and philosophies that created the great empires of Ghana, Monomotapa, Songhai and Mali. (Gutto 2006).

According to Nabudere (2002b, 13) the African renaissance has to be a globally humanizing experience involving whole masses of people under the enlightenment of 'global Ubuntu', which enables people to struggle for humanism and emancipation alongside oppressed humanity. Ubuntu does not seek to dominate and exploit; it can only seeks to liberate the African as a means of humanizing the world. The objective is to bring about social transformation in African societies. Research in Africa must seek to liberate and empower the marginalised to fight for their rights for self-transformation.

During field research, it was found that the immediate expectation of the people of the Great Lakes are that the continuous spiral of violent conflict must change into peace and reconciliation, before an African renaissance or any development initiatives can be possible. A first step after peace appears to be a need for justice, taking into account the need to restore normality where dysfunctions in society persist, and to reconnect people where connections were destroyed by conflict. The expectation is that this will lead to psychological healing, replacing the psychological causes of the conflict with the principles of Ubuntu, characterised by interconnectedness, togetherness, humaneness, respect and dignity. Only after restoration, reconnection and healing can the expectations of lasting human security, freedom to exercise human rights, production to relieve poverty and improved quality of life be fulfilled. The ultimate expected outcomes are self-emancipation from domination, transformative socio-economic growth, innovation in all aspects of life, towards a situation where African countries can project competitiveness in a global context in order to restore the historic disequilibrium and reach a new convergence with the rest of the world.

CONCLUSIONS

The first realm of knowledge management in Africa, as learned from field studies in the Great Lakes of Africa, involves collection of information based on confessions and investigation on village level, both in the cases of Gacaca and the traditional practices of conflict resolution of the Acholi. What is distinct here is the public nature of hearings as effective checks to determine the truth. The practices of traditional justice embedded in society and combined with modern practices, were observed. What is especially significant is that a new awareness has to be created of traditional practices to resolve Cold War- related conflicts and impunity.

The second realm of indigenous knowledge involves the broader context of society, visible in both Acholiland and Rwanda. Conventional modern justice systems are already formally integrated with the traditional system, political system and religions as part of one process. An advanced synergy has already been reached involving most actors with knowledge claims originating from traditional culture, religion, politics and modern justice. Traditional knowledge and the norms of Ubuntu complement knowledge brought by the pillars of modern society.

The third realm of collective knowledge management in a middle ground, reflecting the importance of intra-action and interaction among centres, was identified. The role of the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda (ICTR) and the government of Rwanda and relations between the traditional leaders of Acholi and the rest of Ugandan society are examples of these. Since the inception of Gacaca and the revival of the traditional system of Gacaca, the importance of intra-active communication has been realised. Communication between Arusha and Kigali and between Gulu and the ICC appeared to be problematic for various reasons. It is in these challenges that the need for principles and practices on how to develop as complementary epistemological relationship, formal or informal, in a common ground between entities to resolve conflict, were identified.

The fourth realm of social capital manifested itself as a complicated network of 'stake-holders' who are involved in the quest for justice and reconciliation (e.g. the ICC and the ICTR). It is concerning the use of social capital for conflict resolution that the need for good practices for intra-active relationship among global, regional and local entities was detected.

A fifth realm of innovative transformation of post-conflict societies through the fusion of knowledge was identified. The expectation of lasting peace in both Uganda and Rwanda and the resulting transformative growth and reconciliation, calls for effective intervention to prevent continued conflict. Apart from the current temporary solution of military intervention, learning interventions and the development of intellectual capital by institutions outside the conflict, targeting the next generation of leaders, promises to have a more lasting effect on the peaceful transformation of the Great Lakes society.

RECOMMENDATIONS

Based on the conclusions, the following practical solutions are recommended:

Government and organisations should refine processes involving gathering of data from the realm of the ‘lawn’ or village, the processing of information in community-based information centres, synthesis of interpretation in a an intra-connected and collective community of practice where vital decisions are made that would activate intervention and innovation.

The leaders of African society must continue to build trust, respect and cohesion between African Society and its partners that are involved in or support reconciliation efforts in order to plug into the wealth of knowledge offered by the global community.
The leaders of African society should involve the whole society, on not only organisational level but also accommodating the right of every citizen to contribute to the creation of knowledge. The managers of modern knowledge systems must adopt good practices from the traditional culture of Africa to solve modern problems in contemporary situations.

Service providers in education, training and development should develop a culture of learning among the new generation with the focus on creating a holistic understanding of the causes and consequences of conflict and measures to prevent the cycle of violence to continue. Moreover, it would require knowledge-driven transformation of society by means of learning interventions and value-driven development of intellectual capital to eradicate the thinking of class-consciousness, racism and impunity replacing it with universally accepted positive values.

African communities and organisations involved in Africa should establish inter-disciplinary and “Representative Knowledge Pools” of intellectual capital consisting of value-driven leaders, capable managers and expert knowledge workers as drivers of knowledge management in Africa.

Instruments such as the Gacaca court system and the international criminal justice system promised to be suitable instruments to ensure lasting peace. Whatever instrument is chosen would require the eradication of boundaries with local communities allowing for the management of knowledge in the specific episteme according to best practices, focussing on the use of social capital, transcending artificial boundaries between people towards sufficient common ground for lasting peace, productivity, socio-economic growth and competitiveness in the international arena.

REFERENCES

African Union. 2003. Report of workshop on the establishment of the AU Continental Early Warning System (CEWS). Unpublished official document. Addis Ababa: AU Headquarters.
African Union. 2005. Communiqué of the second periodic meeting of the African Union (AU) and the Regional Economic Communities (RECs) on peace and security. Unpublished document. Addis Ababa: AU Headquarters.
Dia, M. 1996. Africa’s management in the 1990s and beyond. Reconciling indigenous and transplanted institutions. Washington: World Bank.
Du Toit, M.K., A.S. Engelbrecht and N.Poovan. 2006. The effect of the social values of Ubuntu on team effectiveness. South African Journal of Business Management, Vol.37, no. 3, September 2006.
Garvin, D.A. 1998. Building a learning organisation. In Harvard Business Review on Knowledge Management, ed. P. Drucker, Boston: Harvard Business School Publishing.
Gutto, S. 2006. Towards a new paradigm for Pan-African knowledge production and application in the context of the African Renaissance. International Journal for African Renaissance Studies. Vol.1, No. 2. Centre for African Renaissance Studies, Pretoria:.UNISA.
Nabudere, D.W. 2002a. NEPAD: Historical background and its prospects. Paper presentation at the African forum for envisioning Africa in Nairobi, Kenya, 26 – 29 April 2002. www.hollerafrica.com/pdf/vol1AfricanRenSep_Oct_2004.pdf, retrieved March 2007.
Nabudere, D.W. 2002b. The epistemological and methodological foundations for an all- inclusive research paradigm for “field building” and inter-subjective accommodation. Mbale: Africa Study Centre.
Nabudere, D.W. 2006. The developmental state, democracy and the global society in Africa Paper for DBSA/HSRC/Wits NEPAD Conference 'Investment Choices for Education In Africa', 19-21 September 2006, Johannesburg.
Neuland, E and D.J.Venter. 2005. Conflict and governance: Nepad, South Africa and Africa. University of Pretoria: Institute for Business Innovation.
Nonaka, I. 1998. The knowledge creating company. In Harvard Business Review on Knowledge Management ed. P. Drucker. Boston: Harvard Business School Publishing.
Pellissier, R. 2001. Searching for the quantum organization. Midrand: IPG.

KM & Governance

Intellectual property law protection for traditional knowledge/indigenous knowledge systems in Southern Africa

storytelling — Mon, 14 Sep 2009 07:39:28 -0600

Intellectual property law protection for traditional knowledge/indigenous knowledge systems in Southern Africa and selected Asian jurisdictions- A view from developing and least developing countries.

Author: Amos Saurombe

ABSTRACT

The discussion of Traditional Knowledge as a subject of intellectual property protection continues to take centre stage at different fora. It is particularly relevant for developing and least developing countries whose Traditional Knowledge mechanisms continue to be exploited without accruing any benefits. The most convenient way to protect Traditional Knowledge is to fit it into the existing intellectual property system. This is difficult to realise as this paper will show. The situation in South Africa is not different. The debate took center stage in December 2007 when the cabinet approved a policy framework entitled ‘The Protection of Traditional Knowledge through the Intellectual Property System’ and a Bill has been drafted that will amend the South African intellectual property laws to make provision for the protection of traditional knowledge. Part one of this paper will deal with traditional knowledge in general. The South African and Malawian experiences form the second component. The third part deals with Asian examples.

Introduction

A universally accepted definition for traditional knowledge has not been found. This is because traditional knowledge may be perceived very differently by indigenous communities, governments, lawyers and international organisations. Despite the difficulty in finding a comprehensive definition, one thing is certain, traditional knowledge has been placed on the international agenda and its entitlement to protection against misappropriation has been recognized. Various methods of protection have been proposed with no clear choice that meets the desired results. The World intellectual Property organization1 is currently using the following definition:

The term traditional knowledge refers to the content or substance of knowledge resulting from intellectual activity in a traditional context, and includes the know-how, skills, innovations, practices and learning that form part of traditional knowledge systems and knowledge embodying traditional lifestyles of indigenous and local communities, or contained in codified knowledge systems passed between generations. It is not limited to any specific technical field and may include agricultural, environmental and medicinal knowledge, and knowledge associated with genetic resources.

International efforts for Protection of traditional knowledge

The debate on protection of indigenous knowledge is topical especially for developing and developed countries. Intergovernmental organizations such as UNESCO, WIPO, WTO, UNEP and UNCTAD2 have opened debates on the possible protection of indigenous knowledge using the intellectual property system. Led largely by debate from developing nations, UNESCO formulated the Convention on the Protection of the Diversity of Cultural Contents and Artistic Expressions and this has been adopted recently by the member states.

Unfortunately, negotiations at the WTO around amendments to the Trade related Aspects of Intellectual Property law Agreement3 on traditional knowledge have collapsed. Article 27 (3) (b) of the TRIPs Agreement empowers member states to consider protection of traditional knowledge using intellectual property systems. During discussions on the review of the TRIPs Agreement at Dohar, Qatar, developing countries proposed amendments of Article 27 (3) (b) to cater for the protection of the use of traditional knowledge that leads to an invention. Developed nations are opposed to this, leading to the collapse of the negotiations. TRIPs has undone everything that the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) has sought to provide. TRIPS does not allow for the full exercise of national sovereignty over biodiversity because it obliges countries to enact intellectual property rights on plant varieties; it does not allow communities to seek a share of benefits obtained from patented biodiversity since there is no provision requiring patentees to disclose the country of origin of any biological materials; it does not require patentees to fulfill access obligation towards genetic resources, it therefore condones and facilitates biopiracy4. The WIPO has established an Intergovernmental Committee (IGC) to initiate discussions on the protection of traditional knowledge, genetic and biological resources and folklore using intellectual property systems. Although treaties can protect these issues under discussion, many developed nations are opposed to formulation of such treaties and negotiations are on the verge of collapse.
The United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP), which is the custodian of the convention on Biological Biodiversity (CBD), has requested WIPO, WTO and FAO to consider protection and benefiting of local communities that have contributed to an invention or intellectual property development. WIPO convened the ICG mentioned above and UNCTAD has voiced support, emphasizing the economic value of traditional knowledge systems. Regional organisations such as Asia and the Pacific and the African Union have started to issue treaties and conventions regarding the regulation of traditional knowledge. Member states of these regions are busy formulating legislation.

The General Assembly of the United Nations adopted the Declaration on the Rights of indigenous Peoples on 13 September 2007 and this constitutes a seminal document in the field of traditional Knowledge. Article 31 of the declaration states that:
‘Indigenous peoples have the right to maintain, control, protect and develop their cultural heritage, traditional knowledge and traditional cultural expressions, as well as the manifestations of their sciences, technologies and cultures, including human and genetic resources, seeds medicines, knowledge of the properties of fauna and flora, oral traditions, literature and designs, sports and traditional games and visual and performing arts. They also have the right to maintain, control, protect and develop their intellectual property over such cultural heritage, traditional knowledge and traditional cultural expressions. In conjunction with indigenous peoples, states shall take effective measures to recognize and protect the exercise of these rights’
Article 27 (3) (b) of TRIPs gives powers to member states to consider protection of traditional knowledge using existing intellectual property systems, as well as geographical indications, community-based rights and sui generis forms of protection. With the importance of the preservation of traditional knowledge recognized on a global scale, there are a few questions that need some considerations: how should traditional knowledge be protected? What do indigenous communities wish to protect and what is the best method of achieving this?

The above questions can be answered only once the objectives and needs of indigenous communities have been ascertained. It may be that these communities wish to benefit from the commercialization of their cultural expressions. They would then require protection in order to be compensated for the use of their knowledge. Others may wish to prevent the unauthorised use of their traditional knowledge and would require the means to control and prevent the use by others who do not form part of the community. Communities may require the recordal of their traditional knowledge in written form, which may require registration.
The most convenient way to protect traditional knowledge is to fit it into an existing intellectual property system. According to Hoffman intellectual property can be thought of as the use or value of an idea, such as inventions, designs, literary and artistic works and symbols, names and performances5. Most forms of intellectual property protection, such as copyright trademark and patent law grant exclusive property rights to authors and artists in their creations. In the classic scheme of intellectual property, the granting of private rights provides incentives for creation and invention and thus promotes knowledge and culture. Hoffman further acknowledges the limits to the rights with respect to the idea, namely that these rights are invariably focused on the physical manifestation of the idea. There is in exclusive right to the mere abstract idea. Indigenous people worldwide have the added difficulty in asserting property claims because national legislation and the courts do not recognize collective rights in cultural property. The traditional systems of intellectual property protection do not suit protection of traditional knowledge, since these are individualistic systems whereas traditional knowledge is held by communities. In addition, there is a further complication where different indigenous communities in a country, or even in different countries, have the same or similar traditional knowledge. Furthermore, the protection provided by traditional systems of intellectual property protection has a limited time-frame, whereas traditional knowledge is held in perpetuity.

On the other hand the WTO has limited influence on the protection of indigenous knowledge. It can only enforce compliance with the threat of trade sanctions. In the case of protecting indigenous knowledge, most treaties are non binding. Every clause that deals with benefit sharing is contested and refused. The ILO convention No. 169 which says a lot about legal standards for indigenous rights fail to protect the intellectual property rights of indigenous people. Whereas the UN Declaration on the rights of intellectual property recognises the rights, it will be a non-binding document which cannot be legally enforced. In the International Undertaking on Plant Genetic Resources (IUPGR), developed nations have successfully blocked an international recognition on Farmers Rights for the last 12 years. They also contest any notion of paying for the use of traditional germ plasm in a benefit sharing arrangement. The CBD which has attempted to push through interests of Indigenous Communities has been thwarted by the American refusal to rectify it and accept its conditions. In the CBD, the most contentious and so far unaccepted Article is Article 16 which deals with transferring technology as part of the deal to use the indigenous knowledge and biodiversity of local communities in different countries.

Finally, in terms of patent protection, there is a restricted interpretation of what is patentable, namely that the invention is required to be novel, inventive and have industrial applicability. Traditional knowledge is something that develops incrementally over time, is informal and is common knowledge to the community. Nevertheless, Australia, Canada, New Zealand and Portugal have used their existing intellectual property systems to protect traditional knowledge.

Potential Sui generis protection models6

In an effort to extend protection to traditional knowledge, various countries have adopted existing IP systems to the needs of traditional knowledge holders through sui generis measures. These take different forms, for example, the Chinese have a team of patent examiners specializing in traditional Chinese medicine. South African is seeking to join several countries like Peru, Costa Rica, Portugal and Thailand in adopting sui generis laws. The approaches available in the literature can be broadly divided into Defensive and Positive groupings. While positive protection would refer to the acquisition by the TK holder of an IPR to such as a patent, defensive protection refers to provisions adopted in the law or by a regulatory authority to prevent IPR claims to knowledge, a cultural expression or a product being granted to unauthorized persons or organisations. The distinction between the two is not always clear in the sense that positive mechanisms might actually give rise to defensive effects.

Sui generis forms of protection have also been used in Tunisia, Panama, Philippines, and Pacific regional systems. The USA has adopted special intellectual property regimes to protect the collective rights of indigenous communities. The USA has enacted the Arts and Crafts Act of 1990 that protects the arts and crafts of Native Americans. The decision as to which form of protection to take is not an easy one to make. WIPO has been grappling with this decision for some time. WIPO’s Inter-Governmental Committee on Intellectual Property and Genetic Resources, Traditional knowledge and Folk Law has been working since 2001 to find a suitable system to protect the traditional knowledge of indigenous people. It is currently considering the protection of traditional knowledge through two complementary processes. Firstly, the consideration of an agreed list of issues concerning the protection of traditional knowledge, and secondly consideration of a draft set of revised objectives and principles for the protection of traditional knowledge are as follows’

Definition of traditional knowledge that should be protected
Who should benefit from any such protection; who holds the rights to protect traditional knowledge?
What objective is sought to be achieved through according intellectual protection to such knowledge (economic, social, moral rights)?
What forms of behavior in relation to the protectable traditional knowledge should be considered unacceptable/illegal?
Should there be any exceptions or limitations to rights attaching to protectable traditional knowledge; for how long should protection be accorded?
To what extent do existing intellectual property rights already afford protection;
What gaps need to be filled?
What sanctions or penalties should apply to dealings considered being unacceptable or illegal?
Which issues should be dealt with internationally and which nationally, or what divisions should be made between intellectual regulation and national regulation?
How should foreign rights holders or beneficiaries be treated?

The South African Scenario

The protection of indigenous knowledge in South Africa cannot ignore the international and regional trends, but protection within the South African context is vital and achievable. The Bill proposes protection under the intellectual property system, databases, sui generis laws and registers. The Dti initiated amendments to the Patents Act 1978, now the Patents Amendment Act 2005. The Patents Amendment Act 2005 is being used at the WTO and to a certain extent at WIPO as model legislation in this regard. Trademarks, copyright, designs and geographical indications are earmarked to provide similar protection to traditional knowledge.

In 2004, the Cabinet approved the indigenous knowledge systems policy. A number of different government departments were stakeholders in the development of this policy. These included the Department of Arts and Culture (DESAC), the Department of Trade and Industry (Dti) Department of Health (DOH) and the Department of Science and Technology (DST). The policy identified four main indigenous knowledge system policy drivers:

The affirmation of African culture values in the face of globalization- a clear imperative given the need to promote a positive African identity.
Practical measures for the development of services provided by traditional knowledge holders and practitioners, with a particular focus on traditional medicine, but also including areas such as agriculture, indigenous languages and folk lore.
Underpinning the contribution of indigenous knowledge to the economy- the role of indigenous knowledge in employment and wealth creation.
Interfaces with other knowledge systems, for example when indigenous knowledge is used together with modern bio-technology in pharmaceutical and other sectors to increase the rate of innovation.

This policy provided a broad basis for recognition, understanding, integration and promotion of indigenous knowledge resources within South Africa.

The dti has approached cabinet and the Portfolio Committee for trade and industry for approval and initial briefing on the policy and the Bill were published on the 5th of May 2008 in the Government Gazette no. 31026 for public consultation. The closing date for comments was 15 June 20087. The public consultations took the form of bringing together students, academic, traditional leaders, and indigenous communities. One discussion on the deliberation at this consultation session is captured in this paper.

Domains of Intellectual Property, extending protection to traditional knowledge

The following discussion focuses on the extent the Bill has managed to use the Intellectual property system in its current form with minimum changes made.

Trade Marks

The Bill invites communities that own the original traditional knowledge trademarks to license such a trademark. They need to comply with all licensing requirements for example prior informed consent. The communities must negotiate for a royalty fee and must preferably form an organisation to manage these types of traditional knowledge-trademarks. From a business perspective, trademarks may be used in all sectors. International markets for local products will be sought and protection in those jurisdictions can be obtained. Small businesses can prepare themselves for export markets by securing protection of trademarks/geographical indications, e.g. “Rooibos/honeybush tea” that has both a reputable domestic and international market. Traditional knowledge holders in the area of Trade Marks/geographical indications can also use cultural names or signs. These names may be registered under legislation protecting intellectual property type issues. Rooibos tea is a good example of a geographical indicator since it can only be grown in South Africa, Western Cape in the Cederberg Mountains. The registration of rooibos tea as a trademark in the USA resulted in the blockage of exports of rooibos tea from South Africa into the USA. The Dti is currently helping with the deregistration of this trademark. The government should move fast and declare rooibos tea a geographical indicator (GI). Trading partners should be approached to recognize the new GI.

Patents

Traditional communities have a lot to offer in this area. There are patents that are associated with cultural paintings of clay utensils and artistic works in skins, clothing and other textile material. In the agricultural sector, traditional communities also contribute in supplying their knowledge for inventions and traditional farming methods. Traditional communities have also given valuable contributions to the pharmaceutical sector. Two well known examples where traditional knowledge has been developed commercially are as follows; a number of South African communities have been using the Buchu plant to relieve stomach pains. The Khoi and San people have been using the Hoodia plants for suppressing thirst and hunger. The community worked with the CSIR and their knowledge led to an invention (P57) of the slim pill. Recently the European Patent Office (EPO) granted a patent based on this traditional knowledge. The CSIR and the Khoi/San have a benefit sharing agreement. The Patents Amendment Act of 2005 now regulates this regime. The Dti has identified the pharmaceutical industry as needing nourishment. By regulation of the use of the traditional knowledge systems these communities should benefit from the provisions of their knowledge to commercialisation partners.

Copyright

The Bill is seeking to strengthen copyright laws relating to folklore music. The folkloric music has to be owned by the community or the government for anonymous folklore. This will be realized by a drive to research and compile databases of folklore. The community and government can negotiate benefit-sharing agreement flowing from the use of this folklore.

Designs, Geographic indications and traditional knowledge

Similar approaches as indicated in the discussions on trademarks, patents and copyright will be adopted. Communities have to agree on how to manage paintings, designs and related artifacts.

To date certain legislative amendments have been enacted that will give effect to Article 27 (3) (b) of TRIPS. Protection of traditional knowledge holders from exploitation by commercial players can be achieved by ensuring that their traditional knowledge rights are protected and that agreements are entered into by themselves and the commercial partner that provide for equitable benefit sharing. One mechanism for regulation of benefits sharing is provided in the Department of Environmental Affairs and Tourism (DEAT) that initiated Environmental Management: Biodiversity Act 10 of 2004 and its regulations, which are still in draft form.

General shortcomings of the Bill

During the public hearings at the North West University8, the following issues were raised by Academics, traditional leaders, indigenous community representatives and students.

The Bill was considered too bulky, covering too many areas of intellectual property. Other proposed separate bills for each and every of the following, patents, trademarks, copyright, designs, geographic indications and traditional knowledge.
The role of the individual in the consultation process is not defined. The impact of individual suggestions towards the Bill could easily be ignored.
The traditional communities did not understand the role of databases and ownership of such mechanisms.
The registration processes still follows the first come first serve approach. This can be abused by those with resources and have access to the registration office.
The position of community representatives is not clearly defined in the Act. Some prefer the use of traditional leadership but others have reservations. This has resulted because of the corrupt nature of some of these traditional leaders who may pursue selfish interest.
Some Academics preferred a Bill that is more African oriented, with less of Western style of intellectual property type of protection.
The Chiefs are concerned by the fast deteriorating and dissolving nature of the traditional community owing to the effects of urbanisation and migration.
Some communities exist across two or more jurisdictions rendering the need to provide benefits under a South African initiative complex.
Some traditional knowledge does not belong to a single community. Who is entitled to the benefits for such exploitation?
Some stakeholder felt left out of the drafting of the Bill with the Chiefs feeling they are being marginalised.
Some communities feel that they need and should be afforded other methods of protection other than the Bill.
They prefer other forms of testing besides Western laboratory tests for traditional medicines.
Traditional communities feel IKS protection is perpetual; there is no need to follow a renewal process that is cumbersome.
The essence of geographical indication can be questioned in an environment that share common names and cultures.
The Bill is silent on protection of traditional healing methods that are associated with taboos. They resist the influence of Western technology.
Research on traditional foods is lacking in the Bill.
The Bill is silent on resolution of disputes. It is highly likely that dispute will rise when communities and individuals fight for benefits. Provision of conciliation and arbitration according to the Arbitration Act of 1956 could help the advisory purpose of the council.
The Bill must then thus indicate and state the terms of reference of the Council with regard to alternative dispute resolution.
Mechanisms of dispute resolutions must accommodate both indigenous and Western conflict resolution mechanisms.
Council membership has to be based on expertise. They should be chosen from Communities who possess traditional knowledge.

The Malawian Experience

The scope of protection of traditional knowledge in Malawi is still in its infancy. For the purpose of a comparative experience, the Malawian experience will not be discussed at the same level with the South African forms of protection. However it is important to mention that their attempt at protection points to the positive nature of developments in a country that is considered very poor. The constitution of Malawi9 gives rights that have a direct bearing on protection of traditional knowledge. The constitution recognizes the cultural and language rights10 Section 26 provides that;

“Every person shall have the right to use the language and to participate in the cultural life of his or her choice”11

Further, Section 28 provides that every person shall have the right to acquire property and in this context property includes both tangible and intangible assets. Subsection 2 to this section further provides that no person shall be arbitrarily deprived of property.

The copyright Act of Malawi12 makes no provision for the protection of folklore. This Act delineates the subject matter of copyright as copyright in the expressions of folklore that vests in perpetuity in the government on behalf and for the benefit of the people of Malawi13. Authorization of the use any use of expressions of folklore maybe either general or special and can be granted upon written application to the minister. The Malawian experience shows the extent of how current and existing legislation can be given an interpretation that favors the protection of traditional knowledge, but most importantly how crucial it is to keep the door open for future avenues of rights protection.

Perspectives from Asia

The countries of the Asia-Pacific region have a rich cultural heritage, including literature, arts and crafts, music, visual arts, ceremonies, architecture associated with particular sites, as well as forms of traditional knowledge related to forestry, medicines and medical practices, agriculture and conservation and sustainable use of biological diversity. There is concern at the widespread unfair exploitation of the cultural heritage of these nations for commercial and business interests. Important elements of traditional knowledge, art forms and folklore are being lost rapidly in the absence of a proper legal protection mechanism at national and international levels. The extent of the absence of protection at international level has already been discussed above.

Tribal people are being increasingly displaced by industry and development projects. Adivasi homelands have now become included in national parks and sanctuaries, resulting in the displacement of the people who lived there for hundreds of years14. Ethnic strife in many regions of Asia has threatened indigenous and tribal communities, destroying their habitat which is an essential element of the exercise, current and future existence of their traditional knowledge.

Earlier tribal areas were used in the name of development without their consent, for building dams, roads, canals, mining and hydro-electric projects. Increased awareness among the Adivasis who now demand their rights, together with sustained work by civil society, has improved the situation so that it is now mandatory to conduct a public hearing to hear the views of the people before a project can start, both in tribal and non tribal areas15.

The pharmaceutical industry in the Asia-Pacific region has not been spared. The Kava (Piper methysticum) a plant endemic to the region has been traditionally used to alleviate stress and anxiety. It has two known medicinal uses. These are asthma and tuberculosis. The recent commercialization of Kava highlights many of the potential benefits and risks involved in the marketing of species new to international consumers16. The entry of kava into western markets has led to an explosion in demand for the products made from it. This has placed unsustainable pressure on supply sources that previously only suffice the local use. Although local farmers are benefiting from price increases, the types of commercial relationships they arrange with international buyers might not be to their long-term advantage. The unregulated access to kava is resulting in the collection of immature kava, thus jeopardizing the quality of the medicinal product and depleting the resource base. Over exploitation retards the value of traditional medicines and knowledge that goes with it.

The scope of Traditional Knowledge protecting in India

The protection of traditional knowledge in India is a priority in both public and private sectors as shown by the summarized scope bellow;

Protection by the Constitution of India
Integration of the indigenous knowledge system in the mainstream health care
Documentation of indigenous knowledge
Sharing benefits for using IK
National Legislation protecting IK
Sui generis models for protecting IK

In India, the testing of traditional medicines has not been subjected to the Western methods. The Shastric (ancient Indian) system of testing and validation is different from the empirical, western method of validation of western science but is at least, if not more scientifically valid. The nuances of the preparation of herbal drugs are complex and the method of treatment is individually calibrated. The indigenous system of medicines in countries like India, China and others in Asia, is far more sophisticated than most cases of allopathic treatments.

Conclusion

Any efforts directed at protection of traditional knowledge will have to be mindful of the manifestations of intellectual property at national jurisdictions, regional (e.g. SADC, SACU and AU) as well as the international positions (e.g. WIPO, TRIPS and WTO).With proper domestic and international protection mechanisms traditional knowledge can become a niche and source of revenue for the least developed and developing countries.

References

Dutfield and Posey (1996): Beyond Intellectual Property, International Development Research Centre Ottawa
Graham Dutfield (1999): Protecting and Revitalizing Traditional Ecological Knowledge; Intellectual Property rights and community Knowledge Database in India. Perspectives on Intellectual Property. London: Sweet and Maxwell.
Graham Dutfield (2000): Intellectual Property Rights, Trade and Biodiversity; Seeds and Plant varieties. London .Earth scan Publication Ltd
Hoffman B.T. (2006): Art and Culture Heritage, law, policy and practice: Cambridge University Press
Mugabe John: Intellectual Property Protection and Traditional Knowledge: An Exploration in International Policy Discourse, available at the African Centre for Technological studies. Nairobi.Kenya
The Protection of Indigenous Traditional Knowledge through the Intellectual Property System and Intellectual Property Law Amendment Bill (2008) Available at www.thedti.gov.za

Footnotes

Hereinafter called WIPO

Hereinafter United Nations Educational Scientific Cultural Organization, World Intellectual Property Organisation, World Trade Organisation, United Nations Environment Programme and United Nations Conference on Trade and Development.
Hereinafter called TRIPs Agreement
Suman Sahai: Intellectual and cultural property rights of indigenous people in Asia: An outline
B.T. Hoffman: Art and Culture Heritage, law, policy and practice: Cambridge University Press:2006
The Policy and the Bill can be accessed on www.thedti.gov.za
This public consultation was held on the 5th of June at the North West University (Mafikeng Campus).
Republic of Malawi Constitution Act No. 20 of 1994.
S. 26 of the constitution.
The right to culture is protected by a number of international instruments, for example Article 17 (2) of the African Charter.
Act of 1902
Section 24
This is an experience that can be shared by traditional communities of regions bordering South Africa, Mozambique and Zimbabwe forming the transnational park. Similar experiences can be drawn from East Africa where the Masai and Mara communities who have been absorbed into the famous Serengeti and Ngorongoro national parks.
In South Africa discontent with developments like these have resulted in communities strongly opposing their government and traditional leadership for allowing the commissioning of the projects. A community in Bizana, in the Eastern Cape brutally killed their own traditional Chief for supporting an Australian mining company that was about to start a mining project on disputed tribal land.
Parallels can be drawn from the San communities of South Africa’s use of the Hudia plant as discussed earlier in this paper.

KM, Emerging Technologies and Innovative Schemes

A model for community participation in African libraries to preserve Indigenous Knowledge - Betsie Greyling

storytelling — Thu, 21 May 2009 02:03:22 -0600

A model for community participation in African libraries to preserve Indigenous Knowledge.

Author: Betsie Greyling, Senior Systems Librarian, eThekwini Municipal Library
PO Box 917, Durban, 4000, South Africa E-mail: greylingb@durban.gov.za

Abstract

Africa and African libraries and information centres are poorly equipped to make a meaningful contribution to the current global digital knowledge economy. The lack of management systems for indigenous knowledge perpetuates the low local content on the Web, retards buy-in from local communities into digital resources and inhibits digital skills development. Afro-centric Libraries and Information Services should include provision of indigenous knowledge resources. The paper discusses a model for community participation in establishing a digital library of indigenous knowledge. It focuses on public libraries and aims to create a virtual resource that is in step with the global information society while at the same time empowering citizens through preservation of indigenous knowledge and through development of digital skills.

The model creates a platform using existing library infrastructure from where the project is carried out to communities. A multi-pronged approach uses community workers to collect oral and visual material, community members are taught how to add local content to the World Wide Web at the local library, and the library acts as moderator and custodian of the indigenous knowledge resource. A proviso of the model is free public Internet access at the library and the use of social Web 2.0 technology. People of all social and age groups are employed to steer the programme at ground level while volunteer contributions to the database is encouraged. This provides the potential for collaboration from the whole community.

The model will provide a virtual library resource of local indigenous knowledge, freely accessible to all members of the community. Availability of local content on the Web will enhance use of digital resources. Improved digital skills will result in economic empowerment of communities and be instrumental in poverty alleviation.

Ultimately the model will enable communities to manage their own indigenous knowledge in an economically viable manner. Global exposure of local communities will attract international economic, scientific and cultural interest. Virtual indigenous knowledge resources in African Libraries will play a pivotal role in the current global digital knowledge community whilst democratisation of the societies will progress through provision of knowledge.

Introduction

Digital information and communication technologies have revolutionised the ways in which knowledge and technical know-how travel around the world. The extent to which information requirements are met by the Internet throughout the world is reflected in usage statistics. According to the latest published figures 70 % of the population in North America use the Internet; usage in South America is 18 % whereas in Africa Internet penetration is 3.6% (Internet World Stats 2007).

Apart from the problem of accessibility, the global trend of using the Internet for preservation and dissemination of information causes a dilemma for the African information community. Amidst this world of plenty in terms of information and knowledge, the African local content on the Web is very low, because of lack of capacity to record, transfer and disseminate information. The result is that Africa and the library and information centres in Africa are at a major disadvantage in the current knowledge economy and are poorly equipped to make a meaningful contribution to the African Renaissance. Buy-in to digital resources by local communities remains low because of the paucity of local content which contributes to the failure of digital skills development.

A model is proposed whereby online indigenous knowledge resources are established as an integral part of local Public Library and Information Services. Web 2.0 technologies are used to create a collaborative online local indigenous knowledge database. The community assumes ownership of the database, while the library focuses on custodianship of the information resource. Community participation ensures the collecting, recording and preserving of local knowledge, and ultimately accomplishes knowledge sharing, skills development, job opportunities and empowerment within communities. The library provides database management, training and support.

Why do we need to preserve Indigenous Knowledge

Indigenous knowledge is part and parcel of the culture and history of any local community. Development agencies “need to learn from local communities to enrich the development process” (World Bank, 1998). Indigenous knowledge also affects the wellbeing of the majority of people in developing countries (Ngulube, 2002). Some 80% of the world’s population depend on indigenous knowledge to meet their medicinal needs and at least 50% rely on indigenous knowledge for food supply (Nyumba, 2006). Indigenous knowledge is indeed the cornerstone for building an own identity and ensuring coherence of social structures within communities.

Because indigenous knowledge is mostly stored in people’s minds and passed on through generations by word of mouth rather than in written form, it is vulnerable to rapid change (Sithole, 2006). Development processes like rural/urban migration and changes to population structure as a result of famine, epidemics, displacement or war may all contribute to loss of indigenous knowledge. Even in remote areas the powers that push global or just non-local content, i.e. television, advertising, etc., are much stronger than those pushing local content (Nyumba, 2006). Indigenous knowledge faces extinction unless it is properly documented and disseminated (World Bank, 1998). This crisis can be averted by employing the model as set out below.

A model for community participation to preserve Indigenous Knowledge

The foundation of the proposed model is a triangular approach with three cornerstones, i.e. the public library, the community and current information ICT technologies. Together they shape the outcome of the programme and are inter-dependent upon one another. The model was originally developed to suit networked public library systems such as exist in the metropolitan areas in South Africa. These networked systems consist of multiple branch libraries in urban, peri-urban and rural areas, and a good IT infrastructure with free public Internet access. The model is fully adaptable and the programme can be run equally successfully from a single library, as long as there is Internet available in the area.

Information and Communication Technology

Developments in information and communication technologies over the last few decades have prompted a shift from collection development to collection management in libraries (Rowley, 2003; Lwoga & Sife, 2006). The recent emergence of Web 2.0 technologies has enabled large-scale collaboration in the creation of data online (Farkas, 2007). Furthermore the high degree of flexibility in the latest social software allows a dynamic environment which can be easily adapted to serve specific community needs.

The proposed model for the preservation of indigenous knowledge is built around an online database using Open Access social software technology. The database is created as a wiki, which is a Web page that allows users to easily modify content. It is an excellent tool for collaborative writing and for creating and editing shared documents (Farkas, 2007). A wiki can be viewed by anyone who has an Internet connection and changes to the content can be made by anyone with editing privileges. The ultimate example of a wiki is the Wikipedia, the online encyclopaedia that has recently taken the world by storm (http://en.wikipedia.org). Wikis are people-centered, they promote discovery, creation and sharing of knowledge (Grand, 2006). Ultimately they promote lifelong learning through community information provision.

Wiki software can be downloaded from the Web. Database set-up takes into account user needs at all levels of the society and can be expanded as new needs arise. The database is organized into different pages and the community’s own branding is added. In accordance with Mosimege (2005) it is indexed using folksonomies rather than brief descriptors normally used in standard taxonomic databases to avoid compromising the holistic nature of indigenous knowledge. Content is added in plain text, so there is no need to learn HTML. WikiMedia software supports any language and different media can be used to record information, i.e. text, sound and images. The website is hosted off-site to afford free access to all members of the community. Off-site server hosting with regular back-ups and downloads takes care of risk management, and new software releases and enhancements are supported by the development agency with seamless transitions to the end-user. Website ranking is enhanced by linking to relevant local authority and/or national websites.

The Library

The individual’s right to free and equal access to information and knowledge is a fundamental democratic principle (Hedelund, 2006). As part of social services, public libraries are well positioned to insure free and equal access to information and knowledge. By virtue of their focus on preservation and dissemination of information, they are ideally situated to facilitate the management of knowledge (Snyman & Van Rooi, 2006) and to provide opportunities for individuals in local communities to acquire the information necessary to make informed decisions.

The traditional view of the library’s role is to provide access to information resources by building up book collections. This restricted mindset is located in a time when books and documents were synonymous with ‘information’ (Myburgh, 2006). In order to meet the social obligation of the library today, the contemporary library has to provide access to information also from the oral, digital and any other media in which it is supplied. The use of computerized information systems can be effective as a system of conservation if they support the maintenance and transmission of knowledge within those communities that developed the knowledge (Mosimege, 2005).

Whilst libraries elsewhere in the world have been preserving indigenous knowledge for many years (e.g. Smithsonian Institution’s Center for Folklife and Cultural Heritage (Smithsonian Institution, 2007); New York Public Library’s Schomburg Center for research in Black Culture (New York Public Library, 2007)) the situation has been different with African libraries. Libraries in Africa were originally designed to serve colonial interests, stocking books of primarily foreign content (Omole, 2002). With the coming of independence to many African states, transformation did not reach the libraries (Sithole, 2006).

The prohibitive cost of documenting indigenous knowledge compels libraries to establish public/private partnerships to achieve their goal. Among the notable successes in Africa are the telecentres in Uganda, Kenya and Tanzania which provide rural and peri-urban areas with access to ICT’s through support of the United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), Canada’s International Development Research Center (IDRC) and the International Telecommunications Union (ITU) (Kaddu & Nyumba, 2005). Richardson (1997) however argues that due to poor connectivity, inadequate infrastructure and human resource limitations, most of the centres provide very limited services.

Community oriented programmes in libraries elsewhere in the world include the Nepal Rural Community Library programme where a self-supporting community library system had been established, providing access to computers and the Internet (Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation, 2006). The libraries now develop local content which is used to share information across villages. In Chile the BiblioRedes Programme is meeting the communities’ need to preserve and promote local history by providing computers with Internet access in four hundred public libraries countrywide (Pacheco & Abbagliati, 2006).

The proposed model is in step with global goals as constituted in the African Charter for Popular Participation (United Nations, 1990), the United Nations Social Development Plan (United Nations, 1995) and the United Nations Millennium Development Goals (United Nations, 2000). It is also underpinned by the three guidelines for libraries as set out in the South African national policy document for Indigenous Knowledge Systems. The policy states the need for “a new model of library service in order to:

Facilitate indigenous and local community information access based on their own identified needs;
Provide opportunities for indigenous and local communities to actively record and share their contemporary history, culture and language with both Indigenous and non-Indigenous peoples; and
Use new technology creatively to support Indigenous and local community development.” (South Africa. Department of Science & Technology, 2005).
The model proposes to use existing public library infrastructure as a platform from which the knowledge management programme is launched. It is planned to launch a pilot programme in Durban, South Africa, using the well established public library system. In the greater Durban area eighty five branch libraries, spread out over urban and peri-urban areas across the city and the rural areas surrounding the city, all have internet connectivity through the municipal network. In accordance with the model the library serves as the hub for the program and has various roles to fulfil.

Leadership

The library initiates the programme and enters into a partnership with the community. A program manager is appointed to steer the programme, liaise with stakeholders and spearhead marketing campaigns. Liaison with community leadership feeds into a consensus strategy which informs all aspects of the programme, including the project plan, funding, appointment of local field workers, data selection policy, methodology and mobilization of community members. Expected outcomes and responsibilities of stakeholders are defined and documented. Regular needs assessments and status reports are used to re-direct the programme if necessary.

Coordination

Within the library a department for digital resources is tasked to manage the indigenous knowledge repository in its entirety. This department coordinates the technical aspects of the ICT component as well as the community component of the programme. Centralised infrastructure such as office space and ICT infrastructure is provided. The logistics of daily administration, marketing, human resources and finances are the responsibility of the library. The appointment of indigenous knowledge fieldworkers is coordinated by the library. Funding and existing infrastructure will prescribe the roll out of the programme. Ideally a field worker is appointed at every library to serve the surrounding community. Community liaison and outreach is maintained through the central office.

Facilitation

The library facilitates database design, set-up and branding, along with free public Internet access at any branch library or other community centre from which the programme is run. Because the knowledge database is hosted on the World Wide Web, remoteness is not a prohibitive problem in gathering information. Information gathering is facilitated among all community members through indigenous knowledge field workers, whether at the library or at homes through outreach programmes. People are invited to share their knowledge, stories, histories etc. by visiting the library where they are offered the choice of either recording the information on the website themselves or allowing the field worker to enter the data. Alternatively field workers visit those members of the community who are not able get to the library, at their homes. Their stories are recorded on site in order to post the information later on the website.

Education and skills development

There are two aspects to the educational role of the library. Firstly the model prescribes the appointment of indigenous knowledge field workers. Because these are the people who are doing the data collection at grass roots level, it is important that they come from the immediate community. This ensures the building of trust relationships and buy-in from the communities. Field workers need to be trained in IT skills, interview skills and audio-visual recording skills. Secondly, the model is structured to encourage community members to join actively in the programme by recording their own data. For people who lack the necessary skills the field workers provide basic computer training and as much support as is necessary. Training sessions are run by the field worker at the library for groups or individuals. In this way digital skills transfer is achieved widely throughout the community.

Custodianship

The library acts as custodian of the indigenous knowledge e-resource that is created. At no point does it act as owner, but takes on the role of moderator of the database. This involves editing and organizing of the data, indexing, creating of folksonomies, hyperlinking, etc. to ensure effective retrieval (Hartman, 2006). Because the WikiMedia software allows input in any language, translation of selective data needs to be considered. To ensure adherence to selection policies and intellectual property rights, the library must review new input on an ongoing basis.

Outreach and marketing

Successful implementation of the model is reliant on community participation, therefore sustained outreach to the community is imperative. Continuous engagement with and mobilization of the community is structured by the library as ongoing outreach activities in various forms, e.g. storytelling forums, cultural events, social functions, exhibitions, historical and educational tours, craft workshops and the like. All sectors of the community are targeted, across all ages and socio-economic groups. These activities are a natural extension of the library’s normal outreach programme so the methodologies are well developed. Regular promotion of the programme is done through the local press as well as posters and leaflets distributed at community centres, health clinics, libraries, schools, shops, markets and other areas in the community where there is high pedestrian traffic. Introductions and presentations at community meetings further serves to market the programme.

The Community

Metropolitan areas in Africa are typically surrounded by peri-urban and rural areas, with large populations where there is little coherence in social structures, partly due to the dispersed nature of the living environment and partly due to the poor economic situation prevalent in these areas. It has been shown over the past few decades that top-down social development strategies do not achieve sustained public participation (Korten, 1983, 1990). The current model favours the micro-level approach that acknowledges the dictum that “development is about people” (Coetzee, 2001), and thus adopts a bottom-up approach, with the community as the most important member in this partnership.

The model strives towards inclusivity of every sphere of the community and all members are encouraged to participate and take ownership of the programme. Ultimately the programme is about preservation of community knowledge by the community, and therefore the community is regarded as the owner. The only roles that the Libraries and the ICT components play in this model are that of support as described above. Main role players among the community are the leaders, the programme field workers and the community members themselves.

Community leaders

Leaders from the community play a pivotal role in the establishment and continuation of the programme. Local leaders such as tribal authorities and ward councillors inform the direction of the programme to suit community needs. Their cooperation is indispensable in marketing the programme and mobilizing the community. Protracted engagement of local leaders in discussions around indigenous knowledge issues ensures alignment of targets that are in keeping with current sentiments and promote the sustained community interest in the programme.

Field workers

Field workers from the immediate community are used to drive the programme at ground level. They are known in and have intimate knowledge of the community. Thus they are able to build up trust relationships with and secure buy-in from members of the community. A natural consequence of such practice is the awareness and promotion of the programme that is carried out to the community in an informal way.

Field workers are stationed at community libraries but report to the programme manager at the central library. They are responsible for data-collection, digital skills transfer to community members and posting of the data on the website. They reach out to the community by inviting people to come to the library to post their information on the Internet. They also go out to functions and visit individuals as needed to do recordings which are added to the database later. Where areas are too remote for community members to easily get to the library, the library takes the programme to the villages to record the stories and oral histories on site. Ongoing promotion of the programme highlights advantages and fosters a culture of knowledge sharing.

Community members

The community in all its complexity constitutes the natural resource that forms the basis of the model. Ownership rests with the community and through community participation sustainability of the programme is ensured. Special target groups in the community include the elderly, the youth, cultural groups including artists and crafters, professionals and technologists.

It is widely recognized that the older people in the community carry a wealth of indigenous knowledge, both cultural and technical. The oral nature of most of this knowledge makes it vulnerable to extinction and in that sense the resource is already in a virtual medium, albeit one that cannot be backed up or stored off-site. The model targets the older members of the community to preserve this oral knowledge for posterity through visits by field workers to record their stories, histories, songs, dances and other knowledge.

Young people are invited to play an active role in the preservation and dissemination of their community’s indigenous knowledge. Through liaison with schools in the surrounding area the model encourages high school learners to participate in a rotating panel of students to provide a reference service at the community library in the afternoons. As incentive they are trained in digital literacy skills and information retrieval skills and awarded with competency certificates, free photocopies for their school projects and the like. The project will benefit from this practice, as these skills are continuously transferred back into the community, creating a mesh network of skilled people. Rural schools around the metropolitan perimeter have Internet access facilitated through public donor funding, which opens up the possibility of students and teachers participating in the programme by posting information directly onto the database via the Internet. This in turn creates secondary educational opportunities in the form of digital assignments. The model allows free participation with the necessary checks and balances built in through the moderation process.

Cultural groups are targeted to record past and present cultural life, the arts and crafts of the community, their music, songs, dances and rites. The model is structured to allow volunteer indigenous knowledge champions within formal groups in the community to take the initiative to gather information and post it on the website. The library provides support in the form of photographs, audio-visual recordings, free Internet access and appropriate organization of the online data. The selection of material is left up to individuals and groups, and support is provided to protect intellectual property rights.

The model expects professionals and technologists within the community to share their knowledge with other community members. This may be in the form of tacit or explicit knowledge which can be transferred to the website. Members from formal community structures, commerce and local government departments (e.g. health, agriculture, education, environmental affairs) with local information that belongs in the public domain will be encouraged to make the information available for posting on the database. In the case of published data that emanated from research on local material, the information falls within the scope of indigenous knowledge and as such forms part of the heritage of the local community. Typically at museums, research on local culture and natural history often results in research publications. This is a valuable educational resource for local communities and the information should be freely available to the community at large, albeit at a layman’s level, thus contributing to lifelong education.

Results

Community participation in a programme to preserve indigenous knowledge is expected to produce the following outcomes:

A collaborative database of local indigenous knowledge will be created.
A website will be established, providing free access to local indigenous knowledge, not only to members of the community, but to the global internet community.
Local content will be added to the World Wide Web with relevance to local communities.
Free Internet access will be provided to poor/low-income communities.
Use of digital resources will be enhanced among local communities.
People will be skilled in digital literacy and information literacy.
Conservation of indigenous knowledge and through that preservation of culture will be achieved.
African libraries will gain a foothold in the international information community.

A website of local indigenous knowledge will inform local technologies and culture. Improved digital skills will result in economic empowerment of communities and progress in poverty alleviation. Knowledge provision will enable behaviour changes and informed decision making, as well promote the creation of new knowledge within the community. It will stimulate innovative thinking, aid learning and promote indigenous technologies. Formal and informal knowledge levels in the community will be enhanced, leading to an informed society. Ultimately a culture of knowledge sharing between community members will improve social cohesion in the community.

Conclusion

By implementing this model for the preservation of indigenous knowledge communities will be able to manage their own indigenous knowledge in an economically viable and sustainable manner. Global exposure of local communities will attract international economic, scientific and cultural interest with potential growth in industries such tourism, agriculture and the like. A sustainable people-centred, Afro-centric digital library service will impact on social change and will play a pivotal role in the current global digital knowledge community, whilst democratisation of societies will progress through provision of knowledge. Finally African cultural values will be affirmed in the face of globalisation.

References

Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation. 2006. Nepal organization receives International Award for development of rural community library system providing no-cost access to information technology. Available at http://www.gatesfoundation.org/Global Development/Global Libraries/Anouncements/ (Accessed on 10 November 2006).
Coetzee, J.K. 2001. A micro foundation for development thinking. In: Coetzee, J.K. Graaff, J., Hendriks, F & Wood, G. Development theory, policy and practice. Cape Town: Oxford University Press.
Davids, I. Theron, F. & Maphunye, K. 2005. Participatory Development in South Africa: a development management perspective. Pretoria: Van Schaik.
Farkas, M. 2007. Wikis: Basics, Tools and Strategies. Presentation at the 22nd Annual Computers in Libraries Conference, Arlington, 16-18 April 2007. Available at http://meredith.wolfwater.com/wordpress/ (Accessed on 18 April 2007).
Grand, B. 2006. Encouraging interaction online: the emerging role of Blogs/Wikis/RSS in fostering and encouraging user participation. Presentation made at the Libraries & Information Management Africa 2006 Conference, Johannesburg, 25-27 October 2006.
Hartman, K. 2006. Knowledge management using Weblogs, Wikis and RSS. Proceedings of the 17th Standing Conference of Eastern, Central & Southern African Library & Information Associations, Dar es Salaam, 10-14 July 2006.
Hedelund, L. 2006. Community Center Gellerup: from everyday practice to method development: a Danish Public Library case. Proceedings of the 17th Standing Conference of Eastern, Central & Southern African Library & Information Associations, Dar es Salaam, 10-14 July 2006.
Internet World Stats 2007. Internet World Stats: Usage and Population Statistics. Available at http://www.internetworldstats.com/stats1.htm (Accessed on 11 May 2007).
Kaddu, S. & Nyumba, J.B. 2006. Telecentres as a strategy for knowledge management in the SCECSAL region: a case of Uganda. Proceedings of the 17th Standing Conference of Eastern, Central & Southern African Library & Information Associations, Dar es Salaam, 10-14 July 2006.
Korten, D.C. 1983. Social development: putting people first. In Korten, D.C. & Alfonso F.B. (Eds.) Bureaucracy and the poor: closing the gap. West Hartford: Kumarian Press.
Korten, D.C. 1990. Getting to the 21st centuruy: voluntary action and the global agenda. West Hartford: Kumarian Press.
Lwoga, E.T. & Sife, A. S. 2006. From collections management to knowledge management practices: considerations for the Sokoine National Agricultural Library in Tanzania. Proceedings of the 17th Standing Conference of Eastern, Central & Southern African Library & Information Associations, Dar es Salaam, 10-14 July 2006.
Mosimege, M. 2005. Indigenous knowledge systems policy in South Africa: development of digital libraries and implications for benefit sharing and intellectual property. Presentation made at the Commons-Sense Conference, Johannesburg, 27 May 2005. Available at: http://www.commons-sense.org/presentation/mosimege/Mosimege.pdf (Accessed on 2 June 2007)
Myburgh, S. 2007. A global library in a local society. Presentation made at the Libraries & Information Management Africa 2006 Conference, Johannesburg, 25-27 October 2006.
New York Public Library. Schomburg Center for Research in Black Culture. Available at http://www.nypl.org/databases/schdb.cfm (Accessed on 22 April 2007).
Ngulube, P. Strategies for managing and preserving indigenous knowledge in the knowledge management era. Proceedings of the 15th Standing Conference of Eastern, Central & Southern African Library & Information Associations, Johannesburg, 15-19 April 2004.
Nyumba, J.B. 2006. The role of the library in promoting the application of Indigenous Knowledge (IK) in development projects. Proceedings of the 72nd International Federation of Library Associations Conference, Seoul, 20-24 August 2006.
Omole, D.W. 2002. Indigenous knowledge and African libraries: ICT issues and the way forward. Proceedings of the 15th Standing Conference of Eastern, Central & Southern African Library & Information Associations, Johannesburg, 15-19 April 2004.
Pacheco, P. & Abbagliati, E. 2006. Developing local digital content in Chilean Public Libraries. Proceedings of the 72nd International Federation of Library Associations Conference, Seoul, 20-24 August 2006.
Richardson, D. 1997. Finger on the pulse: survey of key rural stakeholders in Ontario with regard to telecommunication service enhancement. Guelph, Ontario: Department of Rural Extension Studies, University of Guelph.
Rowley, J. 2003. Knowledge management – the new librarianship? From custodians of history to gatekeepers to the future. Library Management, 24 (8/9), 443-440. Available at http://www.emeraldinsight.com/ft/ (Accessed on 7 September 2005).
Sithole, J. 2006. The challenges faced by African Libraries and Information Centres in documenting and preserving indigenous knowledge. Proceedings of the 72nd International Federation of Library Associations Conference, Seoul, 20-24 August 2006.
Smithsonian Institution. Center for Folklife and Cultural Heritage. Available at http://www.folklife.si.edu/index.html (Accessed on 23 April 2007).
Snyman, M.M.M. & Van Rooi, H. 2006. Facilitating knowledge management: opportunities for librarians in a changing world. Proceedings of the 17th Standing Conference of Eastern, Central & Southern African Library & Information Associations, Dar es Salaam, 10-14 July 2006.
South Africa. Department of Science and Technology. 2005. Indigenous Knowledge Systems: Visions and goals for an Indigenous Knowledge Systems (IKS) Policy for South Africa. Available at http://www.dst.gov.za/publications/reports/IKS_Policy%20PDF.pdf (Accessed on 1 June 2007)
United Nations. 1990. The African Charter for Popular Participation in Development and Transformation. Proceedings of the International Conference on Popular Participation in the Recovery and Development Process in Africa, Arusha, 12-16 February 1990. Available at http://www.africaaction.org/african-initiatives/chartall.htm (Accessed on 3 June 2007)
United Nations. 1995. World Summit for Social Development – a New Agenda for Social development. 1995. In: Participatory Development in South Africa: a Development Management Perspective. Pretoria: van Schaik.
United Nations. 2000. United Nations Millennium Development Goals. Available at http://ddp-ext.worldbank.org/ext/GMIS/home.do?siteId=2 (Accessed on 1 June 2007).
Wiki. 2007. In Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia. Available at http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wiki. (Accessed on 18 May 2007).
World Bank, 1998. World Development Report. Washington, D.C.: World Bank.

KM, Emerging Technologies and Innovative Schemes

Polycentric Knowledge Networking - Taking Theory to the Streets - Dr. Shittu Akinola

KMAadmin — Fri, 24 Apr 2009 01:34:04 -0600

Dr. Shittu Raimi AKINOLA (Development Planner & Environmentalist)
Department of Architecture Covenant University, 10 Idiroko Road, Canaan Land, Ota, Ogun State, Nigeria. e-mail:srakinola@yahoo.com;
Mobile: 234-803-407-5110

ABSTRACT
Whereas, knowledge and its application are acknowledged as key sources of growth and development in the global economy, especially if it is adapted to specific circumstances and effectively utilized to generate significant opportunities for reducing poverty and promoting sustainable development, structures for knowledge sharing and utilization in Africa are non-existent. The institutional mechanism and technical know-how of how to take theories to the streets in Africa have not been adequately explored and developed, hence, the persistent gap between theories and realities in the continent. This paper identifies some of the reasons for the failure to transform rhetoric by African governments, multinationals, international financial institutions and NGOs into reality in the continent. The paper found that foreign development paradigms, state-centered efforts and market economy have not yielded expected dividends in Africa simply because knowledge generated by Africans have not been properly harnessed towards African socioeconomic, political and technological challenges. This paper raises seven questions:

What lessons have African scholars in diverse disciplines learnt from indigenous and endogenous knowledge and creativities in Africa?
What robustness, limitation and weakness are associated with these knowledge?
How can African scholars harvest development potentials that exist in these knowledge?
What invention(s) or new idea(s) have the African scholars crafted in the course of their intellectual endeavor?
What has he/she done with the invention(s) or new idea(s)?
What are the impacts of the invention(s) or new idea(s) on the lives of the peoples of Africa?
How can African knowledge be networked and shared among prospective end-users in the continent?

Using the Institutional Analysis and Development (IAD) framework, this paper analyses factors that have kept African knowledge in the ebb of development and also charts a course of action that could be taken to ensure that African higher institutions become “organic” in their activities and use their intellectual capabilities to impact positively on their communities. This paper argues that unless deliberate actions are taken to take theories to the streets and apply the knowledge to real life situations in the continent, it may be difficult for the continent to compete and find relevance in the global economy. It is in the light of this exigency that this paper attempts at applying three African development models capable of harnessing, networking and sharing African knowledge for application in a polycentric system. The models are:

African Intellectual Gap Measurement Model (AIGMM);
African Development Brain-Box (ADBB); and
African Development Institutional Mechanism (ADIM).

The formation of diverse networks for knowledge sharing for development is central to the process of repositioning Africa in the global economy.

KM, Emerging Technologies and Innovative Schemes

Food Security in Lake Victoria Basin through Indigenous Coping Mechanisms to Water Resources Variations-Donald Mwiturubani

KMAadmin — Fri, 24 Apr 2009 01:11:56 -0600

Title: Sustaining Food Security in the Lake Victoria Basin through Indigenous Coping Mechanisms to Water Resources Variations

Author: Donald Anthony Mwiturubani

Organisation: Institute for Security Studies (ISS), Nairobi Office

Postal Address: 6th Floor, Landmark Plaza, Argwing Kodhek Road, P. O. Box 12869, GPO 00100, Nairobi, Kenya

E-mail Address: amwiturubani@issafrica.org or mwiturubani@yahoo.com

Telephone:+254 20 300 5726/28 (office), +255 784 36 31 17

Abstract: Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) analysis of impacts of climate change suggest that in the Sub-Saharan Africa, where majority of the population depend on rain-fed agriculture, their economic activities are likely to be more vulnerable to climate change. This is because the coping mechanisms of the peasant communities in the rural areas are limited due to lack of appropriate technology. A survey of households and in-depth interviews of key informants in the Lake Victoria Basin (LVB), however, illustrates that local people in the LVB have been developing different strategies to dealing with rainfall and water resources variations. And that the strategies developed are in most cases adaptive to the changing ecological conditions and are effective and useful in responding to rainfall and water resources variations hence necessitate the design of water use systems for sustainable livelihoods. Agricultural activities are practised based on indigenous knowledge – informed by tools and indicators developed over time and space – to understand the onset and end of rainfall, the main source of water resources in the region. The tools and indicators on understanding rainfall and water resources variations are mainly based on the observations of the changing characteristics of the surrounding environment both on the atmosphere (wind systems, stars), on the land surface (flora and fauna) and other natural systems, such as natural springs. These findings form the basis for concrete recommendations to the governments in the region to formulate policies and enact laws to backup indigenous based technologies for sustainable development. The merging of indigenous and modern-day knowledge systems is also recommended.

KM & Social Challenges

Teknologi Kampungan - A Collection of Indigenous Indonesian Knowledge Systems

KMAadmin — Fri, 23 Jan 2009 01:18:18 -0700

Teknologi Kampungan - A Collection of Indigenous Indonesian Knowledge Systems - By Craig Thorburn

There is no well defined boundary between a subsistence and a market economy and the vast majority of people in developing nations live in a space where characteristics of both economies mingle. The result is a juxtaposition of day-to-day survival with the latest 21st century gadgetry including SatelliteTV, 3G cellphones and the broadband internet.

This book is a novel resource which looks at some Indonesian Indigenous Knowledge Systems, from planting, through maintenance, harvest, storage and transportation to market.